HYDROLOGY
A Science for Engineers
Benoît Hingray
Laboratoire d’Etudes des Transferts en Hydrologie et Environnement–Grenoble Centre National de la Recherche Scientifi que (CNRS/France) Grenoble, Cedex FRANCE
Cécile Picouet
Expert in hydrological risks, water resources and regional planning HYDRETUDES, Alpespace FRANCE
André Musy
Professor Emeritus Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) SWITZERLAND
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Version Date: 20140617
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4665-9060-1 (eBook - PDF)
FOREWORD
“There does not exist a category of science to which one can give the name applied science. There are sciences and applications of the sciences, bound together as the fruit of the tree which bears it.” Louis Pasteur
Given the role of water in the Earth system, hydrology is a crucial branch of the environmental and earth sciences. Likewise, given the importance of water to humans and human welfare, hydrology forms a key component of engineering, providing a scientifi c basis for water resources development. One strives to understand the role of water in the Earth system and the other aims to use that understanding to solve societal problems. These two expectations on the science need not be in confl ict, however, especially if hydrology is viewed as a “use-inspired” basic science, in the spirit of Louis Pasteur. Indeed, the intractability of many of the water challenges that face humanity demands more, not less, fundamental understanding of hydrologic variability and complexity, over a range of time and space scales, including the Earth system as a whole. It is in this spirit that Hingray, Picouet and Musy have brought out this new book, aimed at presenting hydrology as both a holistic earth science and engineering science.
Many current textbooks of hydrology tend to present a fragmented vision of hydrology, treating individual processes separately (e.g., precipitation, infi ltration, runoff, evaporation), with inadequate emphasis on how many of these processes interact to produce an emergent whole system response. The fact is that the real world hydrologic systems we study, and have to then predict to support engineering designs or decision-making, are in essence whole systems, just as the real problems that we face, such as fl oods and droughts, are also holistic. This demands that the way we teach hydrology to a new generation of hydrologists must embrace this reality. Yet, historically, this has been diffi cult to achieve. This book goes a long way towards satisfying this long felt need.
First of all, the book has adopted the catchment as the organizing concept, which is already a major step towards overcoming fragmentation. The description of catchment processes, e.g., wetting, storage and release, are all presented in a holistic manner, being used to track the propagation of precipitation variability as it cascades through the various components of the catchment system. Processes such as interception, runoff generation and evaporation are certainly covered in detail, but without losing sight of the interactions and feedbacks between them, and focusing on how they contribute to the overall catchment response. Lateral fl ow processes in the river network that impact on the timing of the runoff response are also covered at a fundamental level and yet these process-based descriptions are ultimately linked to holistic, catchment-scale representations, such as the unit hydrograph, thus ultimately connecting to engineering practice as well.
In fact, in respect of the holistic treatment, the book goes even further. The material presented is organized around the practice of catchment modeling. Modeling issues are introduced right at the beginning and are continued right through the book in a coherent manner. For example, after a brief introductory chapter, Chapter 2 already covers preparation of input data (both climatic and landscape) for model development and Chapter 3 presents both the science and the art of modeling, including a range of modeling approaches (lumped versus distributed, etc.), model calibration and parameter regionalization as well as uncertainty analysis. This is a novelty in so far as current hydrology textbooks are concerned, in that the notion of model-based synthesis is introduced right at the beginning and continued right through, so there is less chance for readers to become accustomed to a fragmented view of hydrology.
The treatment of hydrology as an engineering science demands a serious effort at bringing about a synthesis between science and practice. Being aware of the practical relevance of hydrologic science is important to keep us on track, to prevent us from wandering off to an ivory tower of hypothetical methods for idealized situations. Practice sharpens the focus on what is important and steers us towards adoption of targeted methods appropriate for a common set of problems. Advances in hydrologic process understanding and the ability to make predictions for the right reasons are the surest way to contribute towards improvements in water resources development and the alleviation of natural hazards. The book recognizes the importance of this by devoting four chapters to a comprehensive and state-of-the-art treatment of fundamental issues underpinning several mainstream hydrologic problems, such as low fl ow analysis, fl ood estimation, fl ood forecasting and methods of regionalization for predictions in ungauged basins.
Importantly, and on a related note, the book has been framed within the perspective of a modern hydrologic practitioner in the era of computers, satellites and electronic data transmission, channeling and synthesizing the major advances in hydrologic process understanding, including methodological advances that have been achieved in the past fi fty years, into a unifi ed treatment. For example, the fi nal chapter introduces the reader to a broad coverage of the multi-scale climatic and meteorological drivers of catchment hydrologic responses and their connections to global and regional atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns, including possible long-term climate changes. In doing so, the authors have succeeded in producing an advanced, up-to-date and comprehensive textbook for engineers and scientists. The book is an updated translation of an original version published in French. The material presented, including analysis methods, are universally applicable and the book will have wide appeal.
In conclusion, given the contents of the book and the strongly and long-felt need for a hydrology textbook dealing, in a holistic manner, with recent advances in both technological capabilities and process understanding, the publication of this book is very timely. I congratulate the authors for an outstanding product of their labors. I am confi dent that the book will be warmly welcomed by hydrology teachers and practitioners and will be widely used.
Murugesu Sivapalan
Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Professor of Geography and Geographic Information Science
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
United States of America
PREFACE
The pressure exerted by man on the environment, in particular on water resources, is increasing every day. At the same time, exceptional hydroclimatic events are occurring more frequently in many parts of the world, often with catastrophic consequences. As a result, effective management of water resources and associated risks has become essential to satisfy the social and economic needs of our society while improving the protection of life and property and safeguarding our environment.
This growing need has raised new questions that call for a deeper understanding of underlying hydrological processes. Rigorous studies are now required to design, build and manage the diverse hydraulic works that go into service every year. Hydrological sciences and their different disciplines, including conventional hydrology, frequency analysis, hydrological processes and snow and glacier hydrology, are the source of methodological and technical developments aimed at building or regulating appropriate water resources engineering projects.
Progress in these diverse scientific disciplines has been a driving force behind the evolution of the education and training of engineers and specialists in natural and environmental sciences in the fi eld of water resources. For example, over more than 20 years, HYDRAM, the former Hydrology and Land Improvement laboratory (now the ECHO Ecohydrology laboratory) of EPFL (Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne) has set up an educational program and forged a high level of expertise in these different fields.
Over the past decade, HYDRAM and PPUR (Presses Polytechniques Universitaires Romandes), the offi cial publisher of the EPFL Press, has published three French-language books in the field of hydrology. These are “Hydrologie 1: une science de la nature” (A. Musy and C. Higy, 2004), “Hydrologie fréquentielle: une science prédictive” (P. Meylan, A.-C. Favre and A. Musy, 2008) and “Hydrologie 2: une science de l’ingénieur” (B. Hingray, C. Picouet and A. Musy, 2009). They expand on two other books published in French by PPUR in related fi elds, i.e. soil physics (“Physique du sol”, A. Musy and M. Soutter, 1991) and water and soil engineering processes and projects (“Ingénierie des eaux et du sol: Processus et aménagements”, M. Soutter, A. Mermoud and A. Musy, 2007).
The first two books on hydrology cited above have since been translated into English, published by Science Publishers in the USA and distributed by CRC Press under the titles “Hydrology 1: A Science of Nature” (Musy and Higy, 2011) and “Predictive Hydrology: A Frequency Analysis Approach” (Meylan et al., 2012). The following English edition of the third book, entitled “Hydrology 2: A Science for Engineers”, now completes this English- language series in Hydrology.
This third book complements the two other works. It is intended to serve as both an educational and operational resource in the field of hydrology and water resources engineering. It is made up of 12 chapters.
• Chapter 1 provides an introduction.
• Chapter 2 discusses the data required for hydrological analysis and modeling, a topic rarely treated on its own although fundamental to the development of any methodology.
• Chapters 3 to 6 present conventional aspects of water resources engineering with a special focus on hydrological models. Chapter 3 introduces the general principles of hydrological modeling while Chapter 4 deals with the modeling of rainfall excess and associated processes. Chapter 5 covers rainfall-runoff analysis and Chapter 6 discusses reservoir and streamfl ow routing.
• Chapter 7 presents the specifi cs of snow hydrology in mountainous regions.
• Chapters 8 to 10 cover aspects of a more operational nature related to the prediction or forecasting of specifi c hydrological variables. Chapters 8 and 9 deal respectively with the prediction of low fl ows and fl oods while Chapter 10 focuses on hydrological forecasting.
• Chapters 11 and 12 cover more recent problems of rising interest concerning regionalization as a way to deal with ungaged basins (Chap. 11) and the production of meteorological scenarios for hydrological analyses related to present or future climatic contexts (Chapter 12).
To help readers review their understanding of the material presented, the key points of the above topics are highlighted at the end of each chapter.
For all the topics, the methods and techniques presented are fully illustrated by numerous fi gures and examples. In addition, the French edition of this book is supplemented by a set of exercises prepared and presented in widely accessible computer formats, generally accompanied by solutions. This “Hydrothèque” includes more than 150 exercises, often based on concrete problems intended to explain in detail and reinforce the theoretical material presented. They provide a valuable learning resource for students, practicing engineers and scientists alike. Thanks to the extensive use of illustrations, these exercises are readily accessible even to non-French speakers. The Hydrothèque is presently accessible on the site of the LTHE laboratory of Université Grenoble Alpes (www.lthe.fr/ PagePerso/hingray/PAGES/Accueil.html).
Certain subjects of this book involve processes underlying the considered hydrosystems. Their descriptions are often based on material presented in the other books of the HYDRAM series mentioned above. The same is true for the scientific foundations of the statistical methods presented, often related to frequency analysis.
The original French edition of this book was the result of an extensive collective effort. Over and above the fundamental input of the three main authors, the book more widely refl ects the work of a dedicated team, that of the former HYDRAM laboratory of the EPFL. Without naming all those who participated to varying degrees in any particular phase of the preparation of this book, I would like to sincerely and warmly express my gratitude to all the members of this laboratory who contributed in different ways, through their research and teaching missions, to the development of the methods and applications forming the basic material that was adapted and expanded as necessary to produce this book.
With regard to all this work, I must emphasize the high level of knowledge, scientifi c rigor and expertise of Benoît Hingray and the scientifi c and pedagogical competencies of Cécile Picouet. The scientifi c and pedagogical quality of this book is largely the result of their fi ne work and I am sincerely and deeply grateful to these researchers for their precious input.
The original French edition was highly innovative and virtually unique among French publications in the fi eld. The present English version is intended to enhance existing English-language documentation. We hope it will provide an excellent resource for course work and that the wide range of topics covered will serve instructors and researchers as well as engineers and scientists working in hydrology and associated fi elds. In this way, we are confi dent
André Musy
Professor Emeritus, EPFL
CONTENTS
FOREWORD v
PREFACE ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xiii
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 KEY PROBLEMS IN HYDROLOGY 2
1.2 METHODS 4
1.3 CONTENTS OF THIS BOOK 7
2. DATA REQUIRED FOR HYDROLOGICAL ANALYSIS AND MODELING 10
2.1 PRECIPITATION 11
2.2 DISCHARGES 23
2.3 OTHER METEOROLOGICAL AND HYDROLOGICAL DATA 27
2.4 GEOGRAPHIC DATA CONCERNING THE DRAINAGE BASIN 34
2.5 DATA OBTAINED BY REMOTE SENSING 42
2.6 KEY POINTS OF THE CHAPTER 44
2.7 APPENDICES 45
3. PRINCIPLES OF HYDROLOGICAL MODELING 62
3.1 INTRODUCTION 62
3.2 REPRESENTING THE PHYSICAL MEDIUM AND PROCESSES 71
3.3 ESTIMATING MODEL PARAMETERS 85
3.4 EVALUATING A MODEL 99
3.5 USING A MODEL 107
3.6 CHOOSING A HYDROLOGICAL MODEL 109
3.7 KEY POINTS OF THE CHAPTER 115
3.8 APPENDICES 116
4. RAINFALL EXCESS AND ASSOCIATED PROCESSES 121
4.1 INTRODUCTION 122
4.2 INTERCEPTION AND DEPRESSION STORAGE 128
4.3 EVAPORATION AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION 136
4.4 INFILTRATION 143
4.5 ESTIMATION OF DESIGN NET RAINFALL 157
4.6 CHOOSING AN ESTIMATION METHOD 162
4.7 KEY POINTS OF THE CHAPTER 167
4.8 APPENDICES 169
5. RAINFALL-RUNOFF ANALYSIS 176
5.1 INTRODUCTION 177
5.2 UNIT HYDROGRAPH MODEL 184
5.3 TRANSLATION MODELS 190
5.4 RESERVOIR MODELS 194
5.5 CHOOSING A MODEL AND ESTIMATING MODEL PARAMETERS 202
5.6 KEY POINTS OF THE CHAPTER 208
5.7 APPENDICES 209
6. RESERVOIR AND STREAMFLOW ROUTING 222
6.1 INTRODUCTION 222
6.2 RESERVOIR ROUTING 226
6.3 STREAMFLOW ROUTING 235
6.4 HYDROLOGICAL STREAMFLOW ROUTING 248
6.5 TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW MODELS 256
6.6 CHOOSING A ROUTING METHOD 263
6.7 KEY POINTS OF THE CHAPTER 268
6.8 APPENDICES 269
7. SNOW HYDROLOGY IN MOUNTAINOUS REGIONS 274
7.1 INTRODUCTION 275
7.2 SNOW HYDROLOGY 278
7.3 GLACIER HYDROLOGY 291
7.4 HYDROLOGICAL MODELING IN MOUNTAINOUS REGIONS 296
7.5 KEY POINTS OF THE CHAPTER 312
7.6 APPENDICES 313
8. LOW-FLOW PREDICTION AND FORECASTING 322
8.1 INTRODUCTION 323
8.2 PREDICTION METHODS 327
8.3 FORECASTING METHODS 336
8.4 KEY POINTS OF THE CHAPTER 344
8.5 APPENDICES 345
9. FLOOD PREDICTION 351
9.1 INTRODUCTION 352
9.2 ESTIMATION OF PEAK FLOWS 356
9.3 ESTIMATION OF DESIGN FLOODS 368
9.4 CHOICE OF APPROPRIATE METHODS 376
9.5 KEY POINTS OF THE CHAPTER 378
9.6 APPENDICES 381
10. HYDROLOGICAL FORECASTING 387
10.1 INTRODUCTION 388
10.2 FORECASTING MODEL COMPONENTS 396
10.3 FORECAST UNCERTAINTIES 408
10.4 FORECAST QUALITY 411
10.5 CHOOSING A FORECASTING METHOD 418
10.6 KEY POINTS OF THE CHAPTER 423
10.7 APPENDICES 423
11. REGIONALIZATION METHODS 427
11.1 REGIONALIZATION PRINCIPLES 427
11.2 DETERMINATION OF HOMOGENEOUS REGIONS 431
11.3 ESTIMATION METHODS 441
11.4 COMBINING AVAILABLE INFORMATION 452
11.5 KEY POINTS OF THE CHAPTER 456
11.6 APPENDICES 457
12. METEOROLOGICAL SCENARIOS 460
12.1 INTRODUCTION 460
12.2 METEOROLOGICAL FORECASTS 468
12.3 DESIGN RAINFALL 480
12.4 GENERATING METEOROLOGICAL SCENARIOS 486
12.5 METEOROLOGICAL SCENARIOS IN A CLIMATE-CHANGE 494
12.6 CHOOSING APPROPRIATE METHODS 503
12.7 KEY POINTS OF THE CHAPTER 511
12.8 APPENDICES 513
REFERENCES 527
LIST OF ACRONYMS 559
INDEX 563
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