Karst Hydrogeology and Geomorphology
Derek Ford, McMaster University, Canada
and
Paul Williams,University of Auckland, New Zealand
John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester,West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England
Contents
Preface xi
Acknowledgements xiii
1 Introduction to Karst 1
1.1 Definitions 1
1.2 The Relationships of Karst with General Geomorphology and Hydrogeology 4
1.3 The Global Distribution of Karst 5
1.4 The Growth of Ideas 6
1.5 Aims of the Book 8
1.6 Karst Terminology 8
2 The Karst Rocks 9
2.1 Carbonate Rocks and Minerals 9
2.2 Limestone Compositions and Depositional Facies 12
2.3 Limestone Diagenesis and the Formation of Dolomite 18
2.4 The Evaporite Rocks 24
2.5 Quartzites and Siliceous Sandstones 27
2.6 Effects of Lithological Properties upon Karst Development 28
2.7 Interbedded Clastic Rocks 31
2.8 Bedding Planes, Joints, Faults and Fracture Traces 31
2.9 Fold Topography 35
2.10 Palaeokarst Unconformities 36
3 Dissolution: Chemical and Kinetic Behaviour of the Karst Rocks 39
3.1 Introduction 39
3.2 Aqueous Solutions and Chemical Equilibria 41
3.3 The Dissolution of Anhydrite, Gypsum and Salt 44
3.4 The Dissolution of Silica 45
3.5 Bicarbonate Equilibria and the Dissolution of Carbonate Rocks in Normal Meteoric Waters 45
3.6 The S–O–H System and the Dissolution of Carbonate Rocks 53
3.7 Chemical Complications in Carbonate Dissolution 57
3.8 Biokarst Processes 61
3.9 Measurements in the Field and Laboratory: Computer Programs 62
3.10 Dissolution and Precipitation Kinetics of Karst Rocks 65
4 Distribution and Rate of Karst Denudation 77
4.1 Global Variations in the Solutional Denudation of Carbonate Terrains 77
4.2 Measurement and Calculation of Solutional Denudation Rates
4.3 Solution Rates in Gypsum, Salt and Other Non-Carbonate Rocks 90
4.4 Interpretation of Measurements 92
5 Karst Hydrogeology 103
5.1 Basic Hydrogeological Concepts, Terms and Definitions 103
5.2 Controls on the Development of Karst Hydrological Systems 116
5.3 Energy Supply and Flow-Network Development 124
5.4 Development of the Water Table and Phreatic Zones 129
5.5 Development of the Vadose Zone 132
5.6 Classification and Characteristics of Karst Aquifers 134
5.7 Applicability of Darcy’s Law to Karst 136
5.8 Freshwater–Saltwater Interface 140
6 Analysis of Karst Drainage Systems 145
6.1 The ‘Grey Box’ Nature of Karst 145
6.2 Surface Exploration and Survey Techniques 146
6.3 Investigating Recharge and Percolation in the Vadose Zone 153
6.4 Borehole Analysis 163
6.5 Spring Hydrograph Analysis 173
6.6 Polje Hydrograph Analysis 181
6.7 Spring Chemograph Interpretation 182
6.8 Storage Volumes and Flow Routing Under Different States of the Hydrograph 187
6.9 Interpreting the Organization of a Karst Aquifer 189
6.10 Water-Tracing Techniques 191
6.11 Computer Modelling of Karst Aquifers 203
7 Speleogenesis: The Development of Cave Systems 209
7.1 Classifying Cave Systems 209
7.2 Building the Plan Patterns of Unconfined Caves 214
7.3 Unconfined Cave Development in Length and Depth 222
7.4 System Modifications Occurring within a Single Phase 231
7.5 Multiphase Cave Systems 233
7.6 Meteoric Water Caves Developed Where There is Confined Circulation
or Basal Injection of Water 236
7.7 Hypogene Caves: Hydrothermal Caves Associated Chiefly with CO2 240
7.8 Hypogene Caves: Caves Formed by Waters Containing H2S 243
7.9 Sea-Coast Eogenetic Caves 246
7.10 Passage Cross-Sections and Smaller Features of Erosional Morphology 249
7.11 Condensation, Condensation Corrosion and Weathering in Caves 261
7.12 Breakdown in Caves 265
8 Cave Interior Deposits 271
8.1 Introduction 271
8.2 Clastic Sediments 271
8.3 Calcite, Aragonite and Other Carbonate Precipitates 281
8.4 Other Cave Minerals 292
8.5 Ice in Caves 294
8.6 Dating of Calcite Speleothems and Other Cave Deposits 298
8.7 Palaeoenvironmental Analysis of Calcite Speleothems 306
8.8 Mass Flux Through a Cave System: The Example of Friar’s Hole, West Virginia 320
9 Karst Landform Development in Humid Regions 321
9.1 Coupled Hydrological and Geochemical Systems 321
9.2 Small-Scale Solution Sculpture – Microkarren and Karren 321
9.3 Dolines – The ‘Diagnostic’ Karst Landform? 339
9.4 The Origin and Development of Solution Dolines 342
9.5 The Origin of Collapse and Subsidence Depressions 346
9.6 Polygonal Karst 351
9.7 Morphometric Analysis of Solution Dolines 353
9.8 Landforms Associated with Allogenic Inputs: Contact Karst 358
9.9 Karst Poljes 361
9.10 Corrosional Plains and Shifts in Baselevel 365
9.11 Residual Hills on Karst Plains 370
9.12 Depositional and Constructional Karst Features 377
9.13 Special Features of Evaporite Terrains 381
9.14 Karstic Features of Quartzose and Other Rocks 388
9.15 Sequences of Carbonate Karst Evolution in Humid Terrains 391
9.16 Computer Models of Karst Landscape Evolution 395
10 The Influence of Climate, Climatic Change and Other Environmental Factors
on Karst Development 401
10.1 The Precepts of Climatic Geomorphology 401
10.2 The Hot Arid Extreme 402
10.3 The Cold Extreme: Karst Development in Glaciated Terrains 410
10.4 The Cold Extreme: Karst Development in Permafrozen Terrains 421
10.5 Sea-Level Changes, Tectonic Movement and Implications for Coastal Karst Development 427
10.6 Polycyclic, Polygenetic and Exhumed Karsts 434
11 Karst Water Resources Management 441
11.1 Water Resources and Sustainable Yields 441
11.2 Determination of Available Water Resources 442
11.3 Karst Hydrogeological Mapping 445
11.4 Human Impacts on Karst Water 449
11.5 Groundwater Vulnerability, Protection and Risk Mapping 460
11.6 Dam Building, Leakages, Failures and Impacts 464
12 Human Impacts and Environmental Rehabilitation 471
12.1 The Inherent Vulnerability of Karst Systems 471
12.2 Deforestation, Agricultural Impacts and Rocky Desertification 473
12.3 Sinkholes, Induced by Dewatering, Surcharging, Solution Mining and other Practices on Karst 478
12.4 Problems of Construction on and in the Karst Rocks – Expect the Unexpected! 485
12.5 Industrial Exploitation of Karst Rocks and Minerals 489
12.6 Restoration of Karstlands and Rehabilitation of Limestone Quarries 494
12.7 Sustainable Management of Karst 499
12.8 Scientific, Cultural and Recreational Values of Karstlands 502
References 505
Index 554
Preface
This is a substantial revision of our earlier book Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology, which was published in 1989. It has been recast, updated and largely rewritten, taking care to keep what we judge to be the better features of the earlier version, particularly its systemsoriented approach and its integration of hydrology and geomorphology. We have not repeated some historical material in Chapter 1 and have not cited some early authorities, because this information is still accessible to readers in the earlier book.
In Chapter 2 we review pertinent features of the medium, that is the karst rocks and their geological structure. In the following two chapters we attempt comprehensive description of the physics and chemistry of dissolution processes and global dissolution rates. In the past two to three decades the study of hydrogeology and groundwater management has become of major importance in the academic world and in practical management. This is recognized in Chapters 5 and 6 with detailed consideration of the karst hydrogeological system, emphasizing here and throughout the later text the most important fact that, in karst, the meteoric waters are routed underground by dissolutionally enlarged channels. Our understanding of the genesis of those channel patterns, i.e. of underground cave systems, has been much improved in the past two decades by broader international discussion and powerful computer modelling, which is considered in Chapter 7. Cave systems may also function as giant sediment traps, retaining evidence of all natural environmental processes occurring in the soil and vegetation above them and in their hydrological catchments. Increasingly it is recognized that caves are important natural archives that contain information on continental and marine climate change and rates of change. These are now being studied intensively because of their relevance to global warming concerns, so a broad review of recent advances in understanding is presented in Chapter 8. Chapters 9 and 10 then consider the variety of dissolutional and depositional landforms created by karst processes on the Earth’s surface, first in humid temperate and tropical environments and then in the arid and cold extremes. The book concludes with broad sketches of the practical applications of karst study and the information presented in the previous chapters. Karst water resources are becoming increasingly important globally, and are the focus of Chapter 11. We consider the delineation and management of karst water supplies and the problem of groundwater pollution, which can proceed with horrific rapidity should there be spillage of the many dangerous substances being moved around the land by road, rail and pipeline. In the final chapter we review hazards arising from the juxtaposition of human activities and karst terrain. The very existence of karst forms and processes may pose hazards to construction and other economic activity and, conversely, human activity poses hazards to fragile karst ecosystems, aquifers and landform features. The chapter concludes with a consideration of environmental restoration, sustainable management and conservation.
During the past 25 years, for a variety of reasons, there has been an explosion of interest in all aspects of karst research on the part of earth scientists, other environmental scientists, civil engineers, and even in legal practice. As a consequence, there has been a huge increase in the number of relevant publications. We find it impossible to read all that is published each year in the English language alone, not to mention the large volumes of important and well-illustrated findings published in other languages. Nevertheless, in this book we have attempted a broad international perspective both in the selection of examples that we present and in the literature that we cite. By necessity, because there is limitation to the number of pages we can use if this volume is to be available at a reasonable price, we have had to work within space constraints, and so we apologize in advance to colleagues where we have not cited – or worse, overlooked – one or more of their favourite publications.
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