CRIME PLACES IN CRIME THEORY
by
John E. Eck
Crime Control Institute,
and the University of Maryland, College Park
and
David Weisburd
Hebrew University
Abstract:
Criminologists and crime prevention practitioners are increasingly aware of the importance of places of crime. A place is a very small area, usually a street corner, address, building, or street segment. A focus on crime places contrasts with a focus on neighborhoods. Neighborhood theories usually highlight the development of offenders. while place level explanations emphasize crime events. Three perspectives suggest the importance of places for understanding crime: rational choice; routine activity theory; and crime pattern theory. Though these perspectives are mutually supportive, routine activity theory and crime pattern theory provide different explanations for crime occurring at different places. Five areas of research help us understand the importance of places: crime concentration about particular facilities (e.g., bars); the high concentration ofcrime at some addresses and the absence of crime at others; the preventive effects of various place features; the mobility of offenders; and studies of how offenders select targets. Concern has been expressed that efforts to prevent crime at specific locations will only move it to other, unprotected locations. Recent research suggests that these fears may be exaggerated, and that under some circumstances the opposite effect occurs: instead of crime displacing, the benefits of the prevention efforts diffuse to unprotected locations. This paper concludes with a review of the 14 original articles in this volume.
REFERENCES
Anderson, E. (1978). A Place on the Corner: Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. (1990). Streetwise: Race, Class, and Change in an Urban Community. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Barr, R. and K. Pease (1990). "Crime Placement, Displacement, and Deflection." In: M. Tonry and N. Morris (eds.), Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, Vol. 12. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Bates, N.D. and S.J. Dunnell (1994). Major Developments in Premises Security Liability. New York, NY: American Insurance Services Group, Inc.
Biron, L.L. and C. Ladouceur (1991). "The Boy Next Door: Local Teen-age Burglars in Montreal." Security Journal 2:200-204.
Boggs, S. L. (1965). "Urban Crime Patterns." American Sociological Review 30:899-908.
Bolton, C. (1993). Personal communication with John Eck by the president of the Northwest Bernal Block Club.
Brantingham, P.L. and P.J. Brantingham (1975). "Residential Burglary and Urban Form." Urban Studies 2:273-84.
_______ (1977). "Housing Patterns and Burglary in a Medium Size American City." In: J.E. Scott and S. Dinitz (eds.), Criminal Justice Planning. New York, NY: Praeger.
_______ (1981). "Notes on the Geometry of Crime." In: P.J. Brantingham and P.L. Brantingham (eds.), Environmental Criminology. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
_______ (1982). "Mobility, Notoriety and Crirne: A Study of Crime Patterns in Urban Nodal Points." Journal of Environmental System 11:89-99.
_______ (1993). "Environment, Routine, and Situation: Toward a Pattern Theory of Crime." In: R.V. Clarke and M. Felson (eds.), Routine Activity and Rational Choice. Advances in Criminological Theory, Vol. 5. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publications.
Buerger, M. (ed.) (1992). The Crime Prevention Casebook: Securing High Crime Locations. Washington, DC: Crime Control Institute.
Burgess, E.W. (1925). "The Growth of the City." In: R.E. Park, E.W. Burgess and R.D. MacKenzie (eds.), The City. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Cadwalder, Wickersham and Taft, Attorneys at Law (1993). A Civil War: A Community Legal Guide to Fighting Street Drug Markets. New York, NY: Author.
Capone, D.L. and W.W. Nichols, Jr. (1976). "Urban Structure and Criminal Mobility." American Behavioral Scientist 20:199-213
Carroll, J. and F. Weaver (1986). "Shoplifters' Perceptions of Crime Opportunities: A Process-tracing Study." In: D. Cornish and R.V. Clarke (eds.), The Reasoning Criminal: Rational Choice Perspectives on Offending. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.
Carter, R.L. and K.Q. Hill (1976). 'The Criminal's Image of the City and Urban Crime Patterns." Social Science Quarterly 57:597-607.
Chaiken, J.M., M.W. Lawless and K.A. Stevenson (1974). Impact of Police on Crime: Robberies on the New York City Subway System R-1424- NYC. New York, NY: New York City Rand Institute.
------(1978). "What is Known About Deterrent Effects of Police Activities." In: J.A. Cramer (eds.), Preventing Crime. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Clarke, R.V.
------(1980). "Situational Crime Prevention: Theory and Practice." British Journal of Criminology 20:136-147.
------(1992). Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies. Albany, NY: Harrow and Heston.
------(1993). "Fare Evasion and Automatic Ticket Collection in the London Underground." In: R.V. Clarke (ed.), Crime Prevention Studies Vol. 1. Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press. and M. Felson (1993). "Introduction: Criminology, Routine Activity and Rational Choice." In: R.V. Clarke and M. Felson (ed.), Routine Activity and Rational Choice. Advances in Criminological Theory, Vol. 5. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publications.
------and G. McGrath (1990). "Cash Reduction and Robbery Prevention in Australian Betting Shops." Security Journal 1:160-63.
------and D. Weisburd (1990). "On the Distribution of Deviance." In: D. M. Gottfredson and R.V.
Clarke (eds.), Policy and Theory iln Criminal Justice. Aldershot, UK: Avebury.
------and D. Weisburd (1994). "Diffusion of Crime Control Benefits: Observations on the Reverse of Displacement." In: R.V. Clarke (ed.), Crime Prevention Studies, Vol. 2. Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
Clifton, W., Jr. (1987). Convenience Store Robberies in Gainesville, Florida: An Intervention Strategy by the Gainesville Police Department. Gainesville, FL: Gainesville Police Department. Photocopy.
Cohen, L.E. and M. Felson (1979). "Social Change and Crime Rate Trends: A Routine Activity Approach." American Sociological Review 44:588- 605.
Cornish, D. and R.V. Clarke, eds. (1986). The Reasoning Criminal: Rational Choice Perspectives on Offending. New York, NY: Springer -Verlag.
Costanzo, C.M., W.C. Halperin and N. Gale (1986). "Crime Mobility and the Directional Component in Journeys to Crime." In: R.M. Figlio, S. Hakim, and G.F. Rengert (eds.), Metropolitan Crime Patterns. Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press
Cromwell, P.F., J.N. Olson and D.W. Avary (1991). Breaking and Entering: An Ethnographic Analysis of Burglary. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Duffala, D.C. (1976). "Convenience Stores, Armed Robbery, and Physical Environmental Features." American Behavioral Scientist 20:227-46.
Eck, J.E. (1992). "Drug Trips: Drug Offender Mobility." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, New Orleans, November.
------- (1993). "The Threat of Crime Displacement." Criminal Justice A bstracts 25:527-46.
-------(1994). "Drug Markets and Drug Places: A Case-Control Study of the Spatial Structure of Illicit Drug Dealing." Doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park.
Ekblom, P. (1987). Preventing Robberies at Sub-post Offices: An Evaluation of a Security Initiative. Home Office Crime Prevention Unit Paper No. 9. London, UK: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
Engstad, P.A. (1975). "Environmental Opportunities and the Ecology of Crime." In: R.A. Silverman and J.J. Teevan (eds.), Crime in Canadian Society. Toronto, CAN: Butterworths.
Feeney, F. (1986). "Robbers as Decision-makers." In: D. Cornish and R.V. Clarke (eds.), The Reasoning Criminal: Rational Choice Perspectives on Offending. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.
Felson, M. (1986). "Linking Criminal Choices, Routine Activities, Informal Control, and Criminal Outcomes." In: D. Cornish and R.V. Clarke (eds.), The Reasoning Criminal: Rational Choice Perspectives on Offending. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.
-------(1994). Crime and Everyday Life: Insight and Implications jor Society. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.
Forrester, D.H., M.R. Chatterton and K. Pease (1988). The Kirkhc It Burglary Prevention Demonstration Project. Home Office Crime Prevention Unit Paper No. 13. London, UK: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
Forrester, D.H., S. Frenz, M. O'Connell arid K. Pease (1990). The Kirkholt Burglary Prevention Project: Phase II. Home Office Crime Prevention Unit Paper No. 23. London, UK: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
Friedman, J., S. Hakim, and J. Weinblatt (1989). "Casino Gambling as a 'Growth Pole' Strategy and its Effects on Crime." Journal ofRegional Science 29:615-23.
Frisbie, D., G. Fishbine, R. Hintz, M. Joelsons and J.B. Nutter (1977). Crime in Minneapolis: Proposals for Prevention. St. Paul, MN: Governor's Commission on Crime Prevention and Control.
Gabor, T. (1990). "Crime Prevention and Situational Crime Prevention: Toward the Development of Some Principles." Canadian Journal of Criminology. 32:41-74.
Grandjean, C. (1990). "Bank Robberies and Physical Security in Switzerland: A Case Study of the Escalation and Displacement Phenomena." Security Journal 1:155-59.
Green, L. (1995). "Cleaning Up Drug Hotspots in Oakland, California: The Displacement and Diffusion Effects." Justice Quarterly (forthcoming). (1993). 'Treating Deviant Places: A Case Study Examination of the Beat Health Program in Oakland, California." Doctoral dissertation, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey.
Greenberg, S.W. and W.M. Rohe (1984). "Neighborhood Design and Crime: A Test of Two Perspectives." Journal of the American Planning Association 49:48-61.
Guerry, A. (1833). Essai sur la Statistique Morale de la France. Paris, FR: Crochard.
Hannan, T.H. (1982). "Bank Robberies and Bank Security Precautions." Journal ofLegal Studies 11:83-92.
Hesseling, R.B.P. (1995). "Displacement: A Review of the Empirical Literature." In: R. V. Clarke (ed.), Crime Prevention Studies, Vol. 3. Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
Hogarth, R.M. and M.W. Reder (eds.) (1981). Rational Choice: The Contrast Between Economics and Psychology. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Homel, R. and J. Clark (1995). "The Prediction and Prevention of Violence in Pubs and Clubs." In: R.V. Clarke (ed.), Crime Prevention Studies, Vol. 3. Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
Hunter, R.D. (1988). "Environmental Characteristics of Convenience Store Robberies in the State of Florida." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology. Chicago, IL. and C.R. Jeffrey (1992). "Preventing Convenience Store Robbery Through Environmental Design." In: R.V. Clarke (ed.). Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies. Albany, NY: Harrow and Heston.
Jeffrey, C.R. (1971). Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Koper, C. (1995). "Just Enough Police Presence: Reducing Crime and Disorderly Behavior by Optimizing Patrol Time in Crime Hotspots." Justice Quarterly (forthcoming).
Kube, E. (1988). "Preventing Bank Robbery: Lessons from Interviewing Robbers." Journal ofSecurity Administration. 11:78-83.
Landes, W.M. (1978). "An Economic Study of U.S. Aircraft Hijacking, 1961-1976." Journal of Law and Economics 21:1-32.
LaVigne, N.G. (1991). "Crimes of Convenience: An Analysis of Criminal Decision-making and Convenience Store Crime in Austin, Texas." Master's thesis, University of Texas at Austin.
Laycock, G. (1985). Property Marking: A Deterrent to Domestic Burglary? Crime Prevention Unit Paper No. 3. London, UK: Home Office. and C. Austin (1992). "Crime Prevention in Parking Facilities." Security Journal 3:154-60.
Le Beau, J.L. (1987). "The Methods and Measures of Centrography and the Spatial Dynamics of Rape." Journal ofQuantitative Criminology 3:125- 141.
Lenz, R. (1986). "Geographical and Temporal Changes Among Robberies in Milwaukee." In: R.M. Figlio, S. Hakim and G.F. Rengert (eds ), Metropolitan Crime Patterns. Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
Liebow, E. (1967) . Tally's Corner: A Study ofNegro Streetcorner Meri. Boston, MA: Little, Brown. Maguire, M. (1988). "Searchers and Opportunists: Offender Behavior and Burglary Prevention." Journal of Security Administration 11:70-77.
Mawby, R.I. (1977). "Defensible Space: A Theoretical and Empirical Appraisal." Urban Studies 14:169-79.
Mayhew, P. (1979). "Defensible Space: The Current Status of a Crime Prevention Theory." Howard Journal ofPenology and Crime Prevention 18:150-59.
-------(1981). "Crime in Public View: Surveillance and Crime Prevention." In: P.J. Brantingham and P.L. Brantingham (eds.), Environmental Criminology. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Mayhew, P., R.V. Clarke, A. Sturman and J.M. Hough (1976). Crime As Opportunity. Home Office Research Study No. 34. London, UK: Her Majesty's Stationary Office.
Merry, S.F. (1981). "Defensible Space Undefended: Social Factors in Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design." Urban Affairs Quarterly 16:397-422.
Miethe, T. (1991). "Citizen-Based Crime Control Activity and Victimization Risks: An Examination of Displacement and Free-Rider Effects." Criminology 29:419-441.
Nasar, J.L. (1981). "Environmental Factors and Commercial Burglary." Journal of Environmental Systems 11:49-56.
Newman, O. (1972). Defensible Space. New York, NY: Macmillan.
Nichols, W.W., Jr. (1980). "Mental Maps, Social Characteristics, and Criminal Mobility." In: D.E. Georges-Abeyie and K. Harries (eds.), Crime: A Spatial. Perspective. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
Parsons, T. (1951). The Social System. Toronto, CAN: Collier-MacMillan.
Pease, K. (1993). "Crime Prevention." In: R. Morgan, R. Reiner and M. Maguire (eds.), Oxford Handbook ofCriminology. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Phillips, P.D. (1980). "Characteristics and Typology of the Journey to Crime." In: D.E. Georges-Abeyie and K. Harries (eds.), Crime: A Spatial Perspective. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Pierce, G.L., S.
Spaar and L.R. Briggs (1986). The Character of Police Work: Strategic and Tactical Implications. Boston, MA: Center for Applied Social Research, Northeastern University. Photocopy.
Polvi, N., T. Looman, C. Humphries and K. Pease (1990). "Repeat Breakand-Enter Victimizations: Time-Course and Crime Prevention Opportunity." Journal of Police Science and Administration 17:8-11.
Poyner, B. (1988a). "Situational Crime Prevention in Two Parking Facilities." Security Journal 2:96-101.
-------(1988b). "Video Cameras and Bus Vandalism." Journal of Security Administration 11:44-51.
Quetelet, A.J. (1842). A Treatise on Man. Gainesville, FL: Scholar's Facsimiles and Reprints (1969 ed.)
Rand, A. (1986). "Mobility Triangles." In: R.M. Figlio, S. Hakim and G.F. Rengert (eds.), Metropolitan Crime Patterns. Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
Rengert, G. (1980). 'Theory and Practice in Urban Police Response." In: D.E. Georges-Abeyie and K. Harries (eds.), Crime: A Spatial Perspective. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
-------(1981). "Burglary in Philadelphia: A Critique of an Opportunity Structure Model." In: P.J. Brantingham and P.L. Brantingham (eds.), Environmental Criminology. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
------- and J. Wasilchick (1990). Space, Time, and Crime: Ethnographic Insights into Residential Burglary. Washington, DC: Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice.
Reppetto, T. (1976). "Crime Prevention and the Displacement Phenomenon." Crime & Delinquency 22:166-177.
Rhodes, W. and C. Conley (1981). "Crime and Mobility: An Empirical Study." In: P.J. Brantingham and P.L. Brantingham (eds.), Environmental Criminology. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Roncek, D.W. (1981). "Dangerous Places: Crime and Residential Environment." Social Forces 60:74-96.
and R. Bell (1981). "Bars, Blocks and Crime." Journal of Environmental Systems 11:35-47.
and J.M.A. Francik (1981). "Housing Projects and Crime: Testing a Proximity Hypothesis." Social Problems 29:151-66.
and D. Faggiani (1985). "High Schools and Crime." Sociological Quarterly 26:491-505.
and A. Lobosco (1983). "The Effect of High Schools on Crime in Their Neighborhoods." Social Science Quarterly 64:598-613.
-------and P.A. Meier (1991). "Bars Blocks and Crimes Revisited: Linking the Theory of Routine Activities to the Empiricism of 'Hot Spots.- Criminology 29:725-55.
-------and M.A. Pravatiner (1989). "Additional Evidence that Taverns Enhance Nearby Crime." Sociology and Social Research 73:185-188.
Scherdin, M.J. (1992). 'The Halo Effect: Psychological Deterrence of Electronic Security Systems." In: R.V. Clarke (ed.), Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies. Albany, NY: Harrow and Heston.
Shaw, C.R. and H.D. McKay (1942). Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago. (Reprint ed., 1969.)
Sherman, L.W. (1992a). "Attacking Crime: Policing and Crime Control." In: M. Tonry and N. Morris (eds.), ModernPolicing. Crime and Justice, Vol. 15. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
-------(1992b). "Review of `Problem-oriented Policing,' by Herman Goldstein." Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 82:690-707.
P.R. Gartin and M.E. Buerger (1989). "Hot Spots of Predatory Crime: Routine Activities and the Criminology of Place." Criminology 27:27- 55.
J.D. Schmidt and R.J. Velke (1992). "High Crime Taverns' A RECAP Project in Problem-Oriented Policing." Final report to the U.S. National Institute of Justice. Washington, DC: Crime Control Institute.
and D. Weisburd (1995). "General Deterrent Effects of Police Patrol in Crime 'Hot Spots': A Randomized, Controlled Trial." Journal ofCriminal Justice (forthcoming).
Spelman, W. (1992). Abandoned Buildings: Magnets for Crime? Austin, TX: Lyndon Johnson School of Public Affairs (March). Photocopy.
Stoks, F.G. (1981). "Assessing Urban Public Space Environments for Danger of Violent Crime." Doctoral dissertation, University of Washington, Seattle.
Suttles. G.D. (1968). The Social Order of the Slum: Ethnicity and Territory in the Inner City. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Taylor, R.B., S.D. Gottfredson and S. Brower (1984). "Block Crime and Fear: Defensible Space, Local Social Ties, and Territorial Functioning." Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 21:303-31.
Thrasher, F.M. (1927). The Gang: A Study of 1,313 Gangs in Chicago. Chicago, IL: Phoenix Books. (Abridged ed., 1963).
Webb, B. and G. Laycock (1992). Reducing Crime on the London Underground: An Evaluation of Three Pilot Projects. London, UK Home Office.
Weisburd, D. and L. Green (1994). "Defining the Street Level Drug Market." In: Doris Layton MacKenzie and Craig Uchida (eds.), Drugs and Crime: Evaluating Public Policy Initiatives. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
-------(1995). "Policing Drug Hotspots: The New Jersey City DMA Experiment." Justice Quarterly (forthcoming).
------and D. Ross (1994). "Crime in Street Level Drug Markets: A Spatial Analysis." Criminologie 27:49-67.
L. Maher and L.W. Sherman (1992). "Contrasting Crime General and Crime Specific Theory: The Case of Hot Spots of Crime." In: F Adler and W.S. Laufer (eds.), Advances in Criminological Theory, Vol. 4. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
White, G.F. (1990). "Neighborhood Permeability and Burglary Rates." Justice Quarterly 7:57-67.
Wikstrom, P.H. (1995). "Preventing City Center Street Crimes." In: M. Tonry and D. P. Farrington (eds.), Building a Safer Society: Strategic Approaches to Crime Prevention. Crime and Justice Annual, Vol. 19. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Wilson, J.V. (1990). Gainesville Convenience Store Ordinance: Fndings of Fact. Conclusions and Recommendations. Washington, DC: Crime Control. Research Corporation. (Photocopy.)
Full Text
ليست هناك تعليقات:
إرسال تعليق