Irrigaton and Agricultural Developent in the
Region of Jizan, Saudi Arabia
By
Mohammed Abdullah Al-Jerash
B.A. (Hons.), 1965, University of al-Riyadh,
Saudi Arabia
M.A. (1969) University of Durham, England
A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at
the University of Manchester
وصف مختصر :
هذه رسالة دكتوراه باللغة الإنجليزية كتبها الباحث إبّان دراسته لدرجة الدكتوراه في جامعة الملكة فيكتوريا في مدينة مانشستر (اسمها المتداول حاليا هو جامعة مانشستر ) خلال الفترة يناير 1969/أكتوبر 1972 م. وسم هذه الرسالة هو “الري و التنمية الزراعية في إقليم جازان، المملكة العربية السعودية” و جرّائها حصل الباحث على درجة الدكتوراه في ديسمبر 1972 م, من قسم الجغرافيا بجامعة مانشستر، في شمال غرب انجلترا.
Acknowledgment
I am greatly indebted to King Abd al-Azeez University of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, for their moral and financial support throughout the study period. My supervisor, Mr. W. C. Brice rightly deserves a special mention for his active and close interest in thus study, and for his patience and guidance. It is a pleasure to record the help I received from my friend Mr. John Boothy of this department, in connection with computer programming and processing of numerous sets of data that have been used in constructing Figures 41, 41a, 42b, and 44-47. My grateful thanks are due to Professor W. J. Thomas of the Agricultural Economics Departments at this university, for his advice on the definition of several economic terms used in sub-chapter 6.6. Miss Christine Cottam, the librarian at this department, has helped in so many ways which make grateful acknowledgment appropriately due.
My thanks and appreciations are due to Mr. Taher Ahmed Obeid, the Deputy Minister for Agricultural Affairs at the Ministry of Agriculture and Water in Saudi Arabia, for his priceless assistance in providing many technical reports and data quoted in the study. I am grateful to the staff of cartographic laboratory of the General Directory of Mineral Resources in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, for their assistance in the studying anf tracing of the available aerial photographs of the region. I am also grateful tom Mr. R. Doubel of the Near East Department at the F.A.O. headquarter in Rome for his valuable help in facilitating my visit to FAO. Finally, the International Engineering Consultant firms Italconsult of Rome, Italy, and GOGREAH of Grenoble, France, have been most cooperative, the writer is grateful to them.
Mohammed Add Allah al-Jerash
15th October, 1972
Withington,
Manchester.
Abstract
The region of Jizan bordering the Red sea in the extreme south west of Saudi Arabia is distinguished from the rest of that country by the amount and seasonal incidence of its rainfall, which is dominated by summer monsoon. This relatively abundant rainfall generates sizeable soate floods which for centuries have sustained the densest cultivated area (38.7%) and population (11.2%) in Saudi Arabia.
The improvement in population growth rate in recent decades has not been matched by corresponding increase in yields or area cultivated, due to various factors which prevented the evolution of agricultural economy beyond the subsistence level. Evidence throughout, the study point out that the prime factor is not shortage of good arable lands and soil resources and irrigation water, but rather the primitiveness of farming methods and the incapacity of the traditional works and techniques of irrigation water control and distribution. This weakness of surface water control is coupled by the lack of capital, on the part of the farmers, to invest in exploiting the huge deep ground water resources which have been estimated at an average reserve of 5.5 x106 cu. m. / sq. km.
The land tenure system is dominated by single ownership by the head of the household, and is characterized by high rate of fragmentation of up to five separate blocks per one farm holding. Land value is clearly influenced by the degree of its irrigability, and the ratio of dry farmed to the total area of the farm. The predominant land use pattern in the lowland of the region (Tihama plain) is summer crops which composed of Dhurah (Sorghum), Dukhn (Millet), and Simsim (Sesame). In the highlands terraces the land use system is of a varied pattern which includes both summer (Dhurah, Dukhn) and winter (Wheat, Barley) crops in addition to permanent trees such as coffee, qat, banan, and limited range of fruit trees.
Irrigation water rights are formulated on the basis of the Islamic laws and traditional customs. The general pattern is that irrigation water rights are attached to the land and accompany it in all transactions. The high annual rate of irrigation works maintenance cost is perpetuated by the nature of the crude structures that are frequently destroyed by peak floods. In consequence this has perpetuated a ruthless drain of farm capital which substantial part of it would, otherwise, be useful to employ in improving farming techniques and methods of production. It follows, thus, that the total farm production, i.e. crops and livestock, has essentially been working at subsistence level. It is not surprising, therefore, that the various lines of investigation pursued throughout the study reveal a very low farm working capital (at an average of 750 R/ha) which greatly restricts the use of circulating farm dead-stock such as fertilizers, pesticides, selected seeds, and concentrated livestock foodstuffs.
The full use of all available human and physical resources in promoting agriculture will depend on the control of both surface and ground water resources. With an average productivity of 2.2 ha per worker, t is obvious that there is a great wastage of labour, i.e. under-employment. In the long run, however, some rearrangement of, and change in, the present occupational structure in the region as a whole will be indispensable. This would raise the question of how far and in which areas of farming that labour intensive methods
should be applied along a steady rate of expansion in the area cultivated.
Inferior road transport has helped to maintain the present proliferation of small competing units. Agricultural marking methods and organization are further reflection of the subsistence economy of the region. Markets are primitive and lack the minimum of modern basic marketing equipment and facilities. Lack of education, lack of capital resources, and the limited range of commercial knowledge and experience amongst both farmers and traders inhibit spontaneous improvement. Farm credit, being largely left to the moneylenders with limited capital, has failed to produce effective results in helping to build up farm capital. On the contrary, the present system has prevented such a process and kept the farmer under constant pressure so that he finds great difficulty in moving beyond the subsistence level.
Social organization follows the traditional line of family, tribe, and village. During the last two decades thr rural communities have experienced the beginning of material change, and new attitudes towards innovation have developed but not matured. There is, further, a prejudice against certain farming tasks as being unfit for men, as distinct from women. Profit-making is not highly praised.
The impression gained in the field is of a tragic situation in which, although the farmers may realize or may even exaggerate to themselves the importance of the physical resources. In brief, it is a situation of pathetic acceptance of their lot with a limited level of aspiration, and a short-sighted view of life which, in turn, precludes the accumulation of farm capital.
Perhaps the agricultural administration of the region might help in bringing about reforms if it took notice of the peculiar conditions an problems of the Jizan region, as set out above. These often call for special measures and for a various and imaginative leadership in persuading the local population to adopt them.
Preface
The region of Jizan is one of the most densely populated and most intensely cultivated area in Saudi Arabia. It is unique in the country in respect of its climate, which is dominated by the summer rain. It is also of considerable political and economic importance for Saudi Arabia, because of its proximity to the State of Yemen with which relations have been strained for some time.
This study is concerned with the specific ways in which improved techniques of irrigation may affect the prosperity of the area. The mainstay of its economy is agriculture, which is very dependent on irrigation. It follows that any improvement in the economy will necessitate changes in the systems of irrigation. The main change has been, of course, the construction of the dam of Raha al-Madarah on the wadi Jizan. It is evident that the economy of the region is closely ivolved with the control and distribution of the seasonal flows in the wadis. Clearly, before the value of the projected Jizan could be assessed, it was essential to know in detail the characteristics of stream flows in the region, how these flows are now used by simple systems if irrigation, and how a large dam could replace or supplement the existing techniques.
As far as assessments of stream flow are concerned, these have been observed by FAO experts and Italconsult only over a period of six discontinuous years in the early fifties and the early sixties, and only at one locality on the wadi Jizan, known as the gorge of Raha al-Madarah, in which the dam stands now. In order to interpret, co-ordinate and appreciate the significance of their observations, it was necessary to supplement them by further assessments, to prepare original graphs and to undertake regional comparisons.
While records, and above all interpretations, of the hydrology of the are defective, basic studies of the geology, soil, vegetation, and climate were adequate enough for the purpose of this study, but again here needed such co-ordination and interpretation in cartographic form. This has been attempted in chapter one of the thesis.
But the principal deficiency has been in the studies of the practical workings of existing irrigation system and, above all, of the functioning of the economy. Under this last heading come the systems of land tenure, the productivity of farms, the variety of crops grown, and the reasons for regional and annual variations of crop rotation. Important too is the information on the disposal of the agricultural produce and notably the methods of marketing, the function of the Jizan market and harbor, and so on, and of course the possibilities of conveyance to other parts of Saudi Arabia.
Social structure and its effect on the running of the economy and the social values and attitudes towards innovation in farming practices and related operations are explained and analyzed.
The final picture which emerges is of the rigidity which prevails in almost all of the backward agricultural communities in the world, and which contributes a formidable obstacle to development and progress. Investigations of the administrative machinery which controls and directs the various agricultural activities reveal deficiencies in the use of resources, both material and human. In all these aspects the author had virtually no records to help him, and field investigations, questionnaires, and observations have had to be carried to provide the basic information.
This topic was investigated and the the thesis written between April 1969 and September 1972. The periods from mid-June till the end of November 1969, and from April 5 th to 30th May 1972 was expended on field work in the region of Jizan. The first half of December 1969 was spent in Rome where contact were made with FAO and with the Internationbal Engineering Consultant firm Italconsulkt, through whose generous collaboration various valuable technical data and illustrations were obtained. A visit was also made to the H.Q. of the International Engineering Consultant firm SOGREAH of Grenoble in France in April 1971. This visit proved particularly useful as the writer was able to compare his own maps of land classification with those of the region prepared by the firm. As a result many alterations were made to the accompanying land classification maps. Further, useful data relating to groundwater investigations collected by the firm in 1969 were of particular interest and used in the construction of several maps. (Figs. 8, 9, 48, 50 and 51).
Chapter One:
The physical Background
References
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8. Italconsult, 1964, “Land and water surveys on the Wadi Jiazn: Vol. II Hydrological report”, Rome, Italy.
9. Tofflon, A., 1960, “Meteorological observations in Yemen”, An annex (pp 89-97) in “Report of the FAO mission to the Yemen” Near East Department, FAO, Rome.
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14. Somali Oil Exploration Company, 1954, “A geological reconnaissance of the sedimentary deposits of the Protectorate of British Somaliland”, 42,p., London, Agents for colonies.
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16. Agocs, W. and Keller, F., 1962, “Jizan, a preliminary interpretation: basin area, sub- surface structure and mineralized area from aeromagnetics”, Unpublished Mimo, Directorate General of Mineral Resources, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, Feb. 28th , 1962, (11P).
17. U.S.G.S., 1963, “Geologic Map of the Asir Quadrangle, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Miscellaneous geologic investigations, Map 1-217A and 1-216A, Scale 1:500000”
18. Italconsult, 1963, “Land and water surveys on the Wadi Jizan: Vol. V. Geologic report”, Rome, Italy.
19. Italconsult, 1966, “Wadi Jizan development project, Malaki Dam : A Geologic report”, Rome, Italy.
20. Abul-Hajjaj, Y., 1961, “A contribution to the physiography of northern Ethiopia” London, Athlone press.
21. Abul-Hajjaj, Y., 1965, “Geological observations in western Arabia”, Bull. Soc. D’Geographie D’Egypt, Vol. XXXVIII : 81-95.
22. Hizayyin, S. A., 1937, “Egyptian university scientific expedition to south-west Arabia”, Nature, Vol. CXL, pp 513-514
23. Greenwood, J. E. G/ W., 1957, “The development of vegetation patterns in Somaliland protectorate”, The Geogr. J., Vol. 123: 457-473
24. MacFadyen, W. A., 1933, “Vegetation patterns in semi-desert plains of British Somaliland”, The Geogr. J., Vol. 116 : 199-211.
25. Hemming, C. P. , 1961, “The ecology of the coastal area of northern Eritrea”, Ecolog. J., Vol. 49 : 55-82.
26. Kassas, M., 1957, “On the ecology of the Red Sea coastal land”, Ecolog. J., Vol. 45 : 187-203.
27. Ferris, H. J., 1953, “Report to the government of Saudi Arabia on reconnaissance soil and land classification of the south Asir Tihama”, Report No. 69, TA-90/Rev. 1., Group 4. FAO 53/2/235), FAO, Rome.
28. Finielz, H, 1954, “Rapport au gouvernment de l’Arabie Saoudite sur l’etude des sols, leur classification et l’utilisation des terrains en fonction de l’irrigation dans de perimeter de l’Quad Jizan ”, Rapport No. TA-90/s/3, Rev. 1., proj. SAU/Agl, FAO, Rome.
29. SOGREAH, 1970, “ Water and agricultural development studies, Area VI, Final Report”, Grenoble, France.
30. Schweinfurth, G., 1888, “Recent botanical exploration in Arabia”, Scottish Geogr. Mag., No. 4 : 212-213.
31. Tothill, J. D., 1952, “Report to the government of Saudi Arabia on agricultural development”, Report No. 76, TA-90/Rev. 1., Group 1., FAO, Rome.
32. Vessey-Fitzgerlad, D. F., 1955, “Vegetation of the Red Sea coast south of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia”, Ecolog. J., Vol. 43 : 477-489.
33. Kubiena, W. J., 1953, “The soils of Europe” London, Thomas Murby & Co.
34. Soil Survey Staff, 1960, “Soil classification: A comprehensive system 7th approximation”, Soil Survey Staff, Soil conservation service, USDA, USA.
35. Taylor, S. A., 1960, “Principles of dry land crop management in arid and semi-arid zones”, in “Plant – water relationship in arid and semi-arid conditions”, Revision of research, Arid Zone Research, XV : 192-204, Paris, UNESCO.
36. Drenge, H. E., 1968, “Surface materials of desert environment”, pp 217-321, edit. McGinnies, W., Goldman, B. J., and Paylore, P., Arizona, University Press, U.S.A
37. UNESCO-FAO, 1969, “Ecological study of the Mediterranean zone: Vegetation map of the Mediterranean zone: Explanatory note”, Arid Zone Research – XXX, Paris, UNESCO.
38. Smith, J., 1949, “Distribution of tree species in the Sudan in relation to rainfall and soil texture”, Bulletin no. 4, Agricultural publication committee, Khrtoum.
39. Marshall, C. E., 1935, “Colloids in agriculture”, London, Edward Arnold.
40. Buchman, H. O. and Brady, N. C., 1968, „The nature and properties of soils”, New York, The Macmillan Co., 6th edition.
Chapter Two
Water resources
References:
1. Irrigation Branch Staff, 1955, “Data on the flow of the Wadi Jizan, Saudi Arabia 1953-54”, Dep. of Land and Water Resources, F. A. O. , Rome.
2. Italconsult, 1964, “Land and water resources surveys on the Wadi Jizan: Vol. II Hydrological Report”, Rome.
3. Simnasky, N., 1955, “Report on the preliminary project for land and water use development in the Wadi Jizan”, T. A. 90/S/3. Rev. , FAO, Rome.
4. Smallwood, T. C., 1953, “Proposal for the Wadi Jizan Irrigation Development Scheme”, T. A. 90/ Rev. 1, FAO, Rome.
5. Italconsult, 1965, “Land and water resources surveys on the Wadi Jizan: Vol. III Agronomic Report”, Rome.
6. Statistic Division Staff, 1968, “Basic Agricultural Statistics: summary of agricultural survey of the southern part of Saudi Arabia”, Dep. of Research and Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Water, al-Riyadh.
7. Italconsult, 1965, “Land and water resources surveys on the Wadi Jizan: Vol. VI Groundwater Report”, Rome.
8. SOGREAH, 1970, “Water and Agricultural Development Studies, Area VI, Final Report”, Part 2, Water Resources, Section 23, sub-section 2302, Grenoble.
9. Italconsult, 1966, “Wadi Jizan Development Project: Geological Report”, Rome.
Chapter Three
Irrigation system
References of chapter three
1. Ibn Anas, M., 1893, “al-Muwatta”, Vol. III, P. 2, Fezaan, (In Arabic).
2. al-Bukhari, M. I., 1903-14, “ Les traditions Islamique ”, Vol. II, PP 105-106, Paris, Imperi. Imp., (In Arabic).
3. Abu Yusuf, Y. I., 1921, “Kitab al-Kharaj; Le livre de impot foncier”, p. 56 Paris, (In Arabic).
4. Brunhes, J., 1904, “ L’ irrigation, ses conditions geographiques, ses modes, et son organizationdans la Peninsula I’berique et dans l’Afrique du Nord”, p. 245, Paris, Masson and Cie.
5. Caponera, D. A., 1954, “Water laws in Moslem countries”, FAO, Development paper no. 43, (Agriculture), Rome.
6. Bowen, R. L., 1958, “Irrigation in ancient Qataban (Beihan)” in “Archaeological discoveries in South Arabia”, Part One, P. 87, Vol. II in the Publication of the American Foundation for the Study of Man.
7. Caton-Thompson, G., 1944, “The tombs and moon temple of Hureidhah (Hadhramaut)”, P. 9-10, Oxofrd.
8. Caton-Thompson, G. and Gardner, E. W., 1939, “Climate, irrigation and early man in Hadhramaut”, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 93, pp 18-39.
9. Clay, G. P. et, al., 1952, “Report on the Ayban scheme, 1951”, London, H.M.S.O.
10. F.A.O., 1960, “Report on the FAO mission to the Yemen”, Dep. of Near East, FAO, Rome.
11. Serjeant, R. B., 1964, “Some irrigation systems in Hadhramaut”, Bulletin of School of Oriental And African Studies, Vo. XXVII, pp 33-67.
12. Hemming, C. F. , 1961, “The ecology of the coastal area of northern Eritrea”, Ecological Journal, Vol. 49 pp 55-82.
13. Italconsult, 1965, “Land and water surveys on the Wadi Jizan”, Vol. III, Agronomic Report, Rome.
14. Burningham, C., 1952, “Asir south Tihama: Basin investigation” pp 20-95 in “Land and water resources in Saudi Arabia”, F.A.O., T.A. Special Agreement 90 / Rev. I, Group 4, Report No. 40, April a952, Series No. FAO/53/9/6924, Rome.
15. Clark, C., 1952, “The economics of irrigation in dry climates”, P.17, University of Oxford, Institute of Research in Agricultural Economics.
16. Gaitskell, A., 1959, “Gezira – A story of development in the Sudan”, London.
17. Church, H. R. J., 1963, “Observations on large scale irrigation development in Africa”, Agricultural Economics Bulletin for Africa, No. 4, ECA-FAO Joint Agricultural Division, Addis Ababa.
Chapter Four
The dam and development area of the Wadi Jizan
References:
1. Twitchell, K.S. et, al, 1943, “Report of the United States Agricultural Mission to Saudi Arabia”, Washington, U.S.D.I.
2. Tothill, J. D., 1952, “Report to the government of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia on agricultural development”, FAO report no. 76 –TA-9 (Rev) Group 1., Rome, FAO.
3. Simnasky, N., 1953, “Report to the government of Saudi Arabi on the preliminary project for land and water use development in wadi Jizan”, FAO report no. 410 –TA- 90/s/3, Proj. SAN/Agr., Rome, FAO.
4. Italconsult, 1965, “Land and water surveys on the wadi Jizan ; Vol. I : General report. Vol. II : Hydrological report. Vol. III : Agronomic report. Vol. IV Groundwater report. Vol. V Geological report. Vol. VI Sosico economic report. Rome.
5. Italconsult, 1966, “ Wadi Jizan Development project: Malaki dam ; Vol. I : General report. Vol. II : Geological report. Vol. III : Hydraulic report. Vol. IV Static stability conditions report. Rome.
6. FAO, 1966, “Land and water Surveys in the wadi Jizan, Saudi Arabia, Vol. I. General report”, FAO/SF:23/SAA, FAO, Rome. Note: Most of the technical data cited in this chapter were drawn from the report of reference 5
Chapter Five
Land classification and land tenure system
References:
1. Bureau of land Classification Staff, 1953, “Bureau of land classification manual, Vol. V. Irrigated land use, Part 2, Land Classification”, Washington, U.S.D.I.
2. Statistic Staff, 1968, “Summary of basic agricultural statistics of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia”, Department of Research and Development, Division of Statistics and Economics, Ministry of Agriculture and Water, al-Riyadh. (in Arabic)
3. Statistic Staff, 1966, “Agricultural survey of the Southern Tiham : Qunfudhah,and Jian”, Department of Research and Development, Division of Statistics and Economics, Ministry of Agriculture and Water, al-Riyadh. (in Arabic).
Chapter Six
The agricultural pattern and methods of production
References
1. Italconsult , 1965, “Land and water surveyas on the wadi Jiazn”, Vol.III, Agronomicreport, Vol. IV, Socio-economic report”, Rome, Italy.
2. SOGREAH, 1970, “Water and agricultural development studies: Final report, Area V, Saudi Arabia”, Grenoble, France.
3. Statistics Staff, 1966, “Agricultural survey of the southern Tihama: Qunfudhah and Jizan”, Division of statistics and economics, Department of research and development, Ministry of Agriculture and Water, al-Riyadh (In Arabic).
4. F.A.O., 1968, “Production yearbook”, Vol. 22, p. 67, Rome, Italy.
5. Allerd B.. W. and Mieheimied, M, 1967, “Livestock production and related problems in Saudi Arabia”, Departmental report no. 2, Animal science division, Ministry of Agriculture and Water, al-Riyadh.
Chapter seven
Agricultural development
References of chapter seven
1. Italconsult, 1965, “Land and water resources surveys on the wadi Jizan”, Vol. VI, Groundwater report, Rome, Italy.
2. SOGREAH, 1970, “water and agricultural development studies, Area VI”, Part 3, Groundwater report, Grenoble, France.
3. Statistics Staff, 1966, “The agricultural survey of the southern Tihama, Qunfudhah and Jizan”, Department of Statistics and Economics, Minstry of Agriculture and Water, al-Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
4. Clark, C. and Hanswell, M. R., 1967, “The economics of subsistence agriculture”, London, MacMillan.
5. Dorving, P., 1959, “The share of agriculture in a growing population”, Bulletin of Agricultural Economics and Statistics, Vol. 8 (8/9), PP1-11, FAO, Rome.
6. FAO, 1966, “Provisional indicative world plan for agricultural development”, Volumes 1 and 2, Rome, FAO.
7. FAO, 1966, “ Indicative worl plan for agricultural development, 1965-1985, Near East”, Sub-regional study no. 1, Volume I and II, Rome, FAO.
8. Warton, C. R., 1968, “The infrastructure for agricultural growth”, pp 107-142 in “Agricultural development and economic growth”edits. Southworth, H.M. and Johnston, B.F., New York, Cornell University press.
9. Asfour, E. Y. et, al., 1955, “Long-term projection of supply and demand for agricultural products in Saudi Arabia”, Economic Research Institute, The American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon.
10. Italconsult, 1967, “Economic evolution of agriculture in Jeddah-Makkah-Taif area”, Specific report no.
10 J.M.T., Rome, Italy.
11. Abbot, J. C., 1970, “Case studies of advances in marketing in tropical countries”, Monthly Bulletin of Agricultural Economics and Statistics, Vol. 19 (7/8), p. 4, Rome, FAO.
12. Abbot, J. C. and Creupelandt, H. C., 1966, “Agricultural marketing boards, their establishment and operation”, FAO Marketing Guide no. 5, Rome, Italy.
Conclusion
from these various lines of investigations must be tentative rather than conclusive. This is because of the dearth of statistics on the economic features of agriculture, and of the inadequacy of scientific information on the water and soil crops. Such shortage of information, which is characteristic of Saudi Arabia, makes it necessary to supplement official statistics by impressions gained in the field.
From this it appears that the basic cause of the present difficulties of agriculture is the ineffectiveness and the frequent failure of the traditional works and techniques for controlling and diverting the seasonal wadi flows, whenever they exceed the level of 500 cu. m. / sec. in the volume of discharge. Since the overwhelming majority of flows in the major wadis are of a discharge volume exceeding that limit, then most of the flowing water volume is uncontrolled and this has firmly limited the size of the cultivated area, and preserved the economy at a subsistence level. Such uncertainty and insecurity, of course, makes it difficult to accumulate capital for investment in irrigation works and the like. Furthermore, there has been a distressing oscillation from year to year in the area cultivated at about 40% of the total. While agriculture has stagnated, the population in the region, as often in the Third World, has experienced a rapid and unchecked growth in recent decades. This has, of course, made the situation worse.
Analysis of the rainfall in the catchment area of the wadis of the region, and the runoff/rainfall ratios (as represented by those of the wadi Jizan catchment area) indicates the adequacy of the annual flows to irrigate those parts which are irregularly irrigated at present and, in addition, to allow an expansion of about 10%. This shows that it is possible to solve the dual problem of stabilization and expansion of agriculture. The difficulty clearly is not the lack of basic resources, in the short term, but the method of manipulation of these resources.
The combination of increasing population and decreasing production occasioned a crisis with potentially explosive social consequences, aggravated by political disturbances over the border in the Yemen. The government had to act but, unfortunately, their line of action has failed to provide solutions to the problem, beyond a limited area confined to the irrigation zones of the wadi Jizan, which embraces only a small portion (19%) of the cultivated land in the region. Furthermore, the dam-reservoir complex approach on the wadi Jizan has proved unnecessarily expensive and time-consuming. It has ignored and overlooked unfavourable basic physical features and functional necessities for reasons quite unconnected with the problems of the immediate area. Consequently, public funds have been concentrated on small area, although better and quicker results could have been achieved by operations on a regional basis through improving the existing traditional diversion and control works on the major wadis. Thus, the plight of the majority of the farming population has not been re4lieveed.
Irrigation dam-reservoir complexes are, in principle, built to deal with problem that arise from a situation of permanent or semi-permanent water surpluses. This situation clearly does not exist in the region. Whenever it flows, the wadi-water is always needed to irrigate the fields and thus storage works are largely unnecessary. Hence, the solution is surely the introduction of basic, engineering features to improve the capacity and efficiency of the traditional works (Auqum) to direct and control peal flows of up to 2500 cu. m. / sec. volume discharge. To bring the discharge volume even lower, perhaps some simple forms of spate- breakers upstream from the Auqum would be desirable. It is interesting to speculate on the effects and changes that this approach would have brought about throughout the region, ashould all the enormous expenditure and the time lavished on the Raha al-Madrah dam have been diverted to this end.
However, now Raha al-Madarah dam-reservoir complex on the wadi Jizan is a reality, its utilization should not be left to un-supervised and unchecked private initiative. Experience in Spain (*) and elsewhere had demonstrated the unfortunate effect of such policies in many irrigation projects in backward economic environments. Rather, there should be integrated economic planning to meet the needs of family farmers in the project area. Their social and cultural needs, and the proper use of irrigated land should supervised by the state. Optimum results can only be achieved by removing the existing causes of failure in the irrigation zone of the project area.
Groundwater reserves in the Tihama plain of the region provide a valuable potential basis for agricultural expansion. It is felt that the tapping of these resources could be best used if they were to be confined to a rather specialized production of vegetables, fruits and cash crops.
The state of agriculture and the structure of its economy in the region calls for a multitude of development measures. One of the basic policies that should be adopted is to stimulate social evolution and progress. Social change in such a backward rural community has proved to be very slow, and there are consequent constraints on the rate of introducing certain types of technological progress necessary for the functioning of proper agricultural development planning.
One of the leading areas where social evolution and constitutional change can be achieved is through land tenure. It is evident that agricultural land ownership is predominantly private. This phenomenon in a society so fanatic in its customary and religious ideology, presents a formidable barrier to land reform. Moreover, there is an increasing need for land tenancy reforms, to prevent the emergence of large class of landless labourers, although regulations are notoriously difficult to enforce.
(*) Naylon, J., 1967, “Irrigation and internal colonization in Spain”, The Geographical Journal, Vol.133(2) : 178-191.
Improved farm credit facilities for the smaller producers can also have a significant effect here. Farm credit plays a central role in a region where farmers cannot obtain otherwise valuable inputs which originate outside the agricultural sector on credit, such as chemical fertilizers and pesticides, mechanical tools, fuel and the like.
A proper and efficient marketing system is another missing economic link in the agricultural structure of the region. It is, however, difficult to localize a point of departure from which the fist stage can be taken. The situation is bad, and no official or economic studies have been devoted to it.
Its evident anywhere in the region that there is a surplus labour force and acute economic and social problems arise from it. There are no alternative urban or industrial job opportunities for displaced agricultural workers, and there appears, therefore, to be a need for a considerable increase in non-agricultural sectors.
The expansion and development of the share of farm livestock in the agricultural economy of the region, and indeed the country as a whole, seems to be made difficult by the high price of fodder in relation to the price of livestock product, where an average ratio of 5.5 is obtained*. It appears, however, that this is a universal state of affairs in the Middle Eastern countries**.
ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
(*) This ratio has been calculated on the basis that average prices of 100 kg of beef and fodder were 350 SR and 63 SR respectively.
(**) The comparable figures fo other countries are as follows: The Sudan 5.3, Iraq 9.2, Turkey 10.7, Syria 10.9; against 13.2 for U.K. and 20.6 for the USA. the package as one that is divided into two main parts:
a. A combination of improved technology geared to improved operational skill.
b. An organization which would make this possible by linking the rural areas of the region with the rest of the country in a network of economic interchange. It may be suggested that the manipulation and success of this approach can be brought about through the adoption of basic steps which fall in the following distinctive categories.
1. Institutional measures: these may include cadastral surveys as a preparatory step to land tenure reform, sale of public land to operating farmers, as opposed to farmer- owner, farmer associations and irrigation associations through which farmers mange
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(*) This ratio has been calculated on the basis that average prices of 100 kg of beef and fodder were 350 SR and 63 SR respectively.
(**) The comparable figures of other countries are as follows: The Sudan 5.3, Iraq 9.2, Turkey 10.7, Syria 10.9; against 13.2 for U.K. and 20.6 for the USA.
The needs of the region are, thus, many and various. To meet these, the approach should be one of a multi-dimensional package. The writer sees the maintenance of the irrigation structure and system, their credit, and marketing activities.
1. Educational measures to enable farmers to acquire increasingly-productive techniques, such as the use of fertilizers, high-yielding crop varieties, new methods of controlling diseases and pests, mu;ltiple cropping system, new irrigation constructions and groundwater utilization.
2. Scientific measures oriented at the building up and dissemination of knowledge of improvements through the establishment of well-staffed experimental stations, channeling their knowledge to the fields through a well-trained extension service, channeling their knowledge to the fields through a well-trained extension service working with farmers’ associations at the local level.
Finally, it is appropriate to raise the question whether this study has a wider relevance. In elaboration on this point, it is suggested that it g=has a general significance in many respects.
First, it has significance to sub-tropical arid vegetation and soil study. The findings of the study amplify and confirm works has been carried elsewhere in the Arid Zone especially that been carried in connection with the UNESCO arid zone research, notably that of the coastal parts of eastern Africa and Western South America.
Second, and perhaps more significantly, the study has methodological significance. It is an attempt to apply basic geographical concepts to the study of the various aspects of the Arid Sub-tropical environment.
The study has also attempted to solve some of the problems concerned with the mapping and description of soil and land classes, in order that field data may be represented as accurately and as informatively as possible, particularly on the medium scale maps. Moreover, this study emphasizes the importance, both practically and theoretically, of the concept of a natural region, for each bio-geographic complex is essentially a unique unit of the natural environment, and each bio-geographic region a larger, more generalized synthesis. Further synthesis would undoubtedly be possible when a global zone survey is achieved. Broad natural regions can clearly be delineated from such preliminary investigation, but for accurate and definitive delineation and description, the progress must always be from smaller units to larger, from minor to major unities.
References of conclusion:
1. Naylon, J., 1967, “Irrigation and internal colonization in Spain”, The , The Geographical Journal, Vol. 133(2) : 178-191.
2. Near East Commission on Agricultural Planning, “Introduction of the grain livestock sectors in the Near East”, Monthly Bulletin of Agricltural Economics and Statistics, Vol. 20 (2), Table 3 on page 5.
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