Movement and Transport of Pilgrims in
the Hajj Region ,
Saudi Arabia
A Geographical Study
by
Abdullah S. Al-Rakeiba
A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Department of Geography
The University of Durham ,
England
August 1991
Acknowledgements
Submitting my deepest gratitude to the Almighty Allah (God), who helped me in completing this study, I should like to express my sincere thanks to all those who helped me throughout this study project.
Regarding the University of Durham, I am especially happy to take this opportunity to declare my deep gratitude to Professor Ray Hudson in the Department of Geography for supervising this study. He has been a constant source of advice and encouragement. I should also like to thank Dr. Gerald Blake, for his consistent encouragement, and for his help with resources relating to the study subject.
My thanks and appreciation are extended to all members of staff and postgraduate colleagues in the Department of Geography. In particular, I wish to thank Dr. N.J. Cox and Dr. IS. Evans for their invaluable help and guidance concerning the computer statistical package. I wish to acknowledge my postgraduate and academic colleagues, Dr. A. Al Metair, Dr. Z. Mekki and Dr. A. El Farouk for their assistance and encouragement. I should like to thank Dr. Williams and the staff of the University Computer Centre, which is open 24 hours a day for the benefit of students and researchers.
Special thanks are due to the staff at University Library, and to the administrators of the University Library for giving postgraduate students the right to a key for use of the main library outside normal work hours. My gratitude is also due to Mr Peter Hughes and Alpha Word Power for wordprocessing/proofreading the final draft of this thesis.
In Saudi Arabia, I am grateful to Imam Muhammed, Ibn Saud Islamic University, Riyadh for providing me with this opportunity to pursue my doctorate, and for the financial support which enabled me to carry out my work.
Acknowledgement must be given to various government departments in Makkah, Madinah, Riyadh and Jeddah, for their help and for providing data to support this study. In particular, I am grateful to the staff at Hajj Research Centre, in Umm Al-Qura University, who provided assistance and help, especially during the field survey for this research. Special thanks are due to Mr Reda Bafageih and Mr Osamah Abduh in Ministry of Communications, to Chief Mansor Altorky at the General Department of Traffic, and to Mr Soleman Altaiar at the Ministry of Planning.
In addition, I should like to express special thanks to my brothers, Abdurhaman and Ibraheem, for their help in many ways, including sending reports and official statistics relating to my topic. I should also like to thank Mr Yusef Al Hosini and his colleagues: Mr Ali Al Homody, Mr M. Alammar and Mr. A. Azzed for their support. I am deeply indebted to them and to many others not mentioned here. To all, mentioned or not, I should like to say thank you very much indeed.
Finally, my sincere appreciation and gratitude go to my father and mother, and to my wife, for the continual support, encouragement and patience they gave me throughout the years of my study. It is to them that I dedicate this work.
Abstract
Over the past ten years the movement and transport of pilgrims to and within Makkah, involving some 1.5 million Muslims annually from around the world who come to perform the Hajj (pilgrimage), has become the most complex aspect of the entire event, owing to the fact that the Hajj is carried out within a limited space at specific times and involves huge and annually increasing numbers of pilgrims and vehicles. Such increases have adversely affected the Hajj, which ought to run smoothly and easily for the benefit of pilgrims.
This study has concentrated on three points:
1) a discussion and analysis of the most important factors affecting the transport of pilgrims, such as transport facilities and increased numbers of pilgrims, and so on;
2) the determination and breakdown of the movement patterns of pilgrims, either between the cities of the Hajj region or between the Holy Places in Makkah, with the aim of evaluating such patterns according to the Hajj objective and pilgrimage instructions;
3) identification and discussion of the major transport problems which pilgrims face in the Hajj region, and suggestions for their solution.
The study has found that traffic congestion, overcrowding and delay are fundamental problems of the Hajj movement, particularly in Makkah. Such problems cannot be solved exclusively by building more roads and providing more vehicles. It has been found that Hajj movement in Makkah is subject to a series of time-space constraints. This limitation of time-space on an increasing number of pilgrims and vehicles involved in the Hajj were essential elements in the creation of traffic congestion.
In order to relieve these problems faced by pilgrims, an attempt to find a possible alternative transport system for the Hajj movement has been developed, in terms both of regional movement (between Jeddah, Madinah and Makkah) and of local movement in Makkah.
List of Contents
Abstract . i
Acknowledgements ....................................................ii
Listof Contents .......................................................iv
Listof Tables ..........................................................ix
Listof Figures ........................................................xiii
ChapterOne Introduction ................................... 1-28
1.1 Significance of the study .....................................2
1.2 Setting of the Hajj region ....................................4
1.2.1 Makkah ............................................4
1.2.2. Madinah ...........................................7
1.2.3. Jeddah .............................................7
1.3 Identification of the Hajj .....................................10
1.4 Purpose of the study ........................................12
1.5 Previous studies ...........................................14
1.6 Study method ..............................................19
1.7 Structure of the thesis ......................................24
Chapter Two A Conceptual Framework
ofTrips to the Mosque ....................... 29-79
2.1 Introduction ...............................................30
2.2 Causes of Movement .......................................33
2.3 Patterns of Movement ......................................38
2.4 Space, Place and Time ......................................46
2.4.1 Time - Space Model ................................48
2.4.2 Time - Space and Trips to the Mosque .................53
2.5 The Importance of Factors Influencing the Hajj Movement ......70
Summary.........................................................75
References.......................................................77
Chapter Three Network of Roads ..........................80-144
3.1 Introduction ...............................................81
3.2 The road network in Saudi Arabia ............................83
3.2.1 Development of the road network pre-1970 ............83
3.2.2 Development of the road network post-1970 ...........87
3.3 The road networks in the Hajj region .........................94
3.3.1 Introduction .......................................94
3.3.2 The inter-city roads .................................96
3.3.3 Traffic volume of the inter-city roads .................100
3.3.4 Road networks of the Holy Makkah ..................102
3.3.4.1 Makkah urban road networks ..............103
3.3.4.2 Overview ...............................115
3.3.4.3 The road network in the Holy Places .......116
3.4 Analysis of the road networks...............................127
3.4.1 Introduction ......................................127
3.4.2 Examination of the road networks of Saudi
Arabia...........................................129
3.4.3 Concerning the road networks of the Hajj region .......136
Summary........................................................140
References......................................................143
Chapter Four The existing vehicular facilities ..........145-200
4.1 Introduction ..............................................146
4.2 Growth of Vehicle Numbers in Saudi Arabia .................148
4.3 The Fleet of Vehicles in the Hajj Region .....................158
4.3.1 Introduction ......................................158
4.3.2 Types of vehicles in Makkah ........................159
4.3.2.1 Private vehicles ..........................161
4.3.2.2 Car ownership ..........................162
4.4 Public transport ...........................................167
4.4.1 Introduction ......................................167
4.4.2 Public transport in Saudi Arabia .....................168
4.4.2.1 SAPTCO ...............................170
4.4.3 Public transport in the Hajj region ...................174
4.4.3.1 Paratransit ..............................174
4.4.3.2 SAPTCO in the Hajj Region ..............176
4.4.3.3 Pilgrim bus ..............................187
Summary........................................................196
References......................................................'199
Chapter Five Analysis of Pilgrim Statistics .............201-269
5.1. Introduction ..............................................202
5.2. Development of pilgrim numbers ...........................205
5.2.1. External pilgrims ..................................207
5.2.1.1. External pilgrims pre 1970s ...............210
52.12. External pilgrims in the 1970s and
1980s....................................212
5.22. Internal pilgrims ...................................218
5.3. Geographical distribution of pilgrims .........................22
53.1. Introduction ......................................225
5.32. Pilgrims from Arabic countries ......................228
5.33. Pilgrims from non-Arab countries ....................236
53.4. Pilgrims from non-Arab African countries ............243
5.4. Test of some factors influencing pilgrim numbers ..............250
5.4.1. Introduction ......................................250
5.4.2. Data variables .....................................250
5.4.3. Constructing the model .............................252
Summary........................................................266
References......................................................268
Chapter Six Hajj Movement in the Pilgrimage
Region ......................................270-317
6.1 Introduction ..............................................271
6.2 Travel patterns to Saudi Arabia .............................272
6.2.1 Alterations in mode of transport . 272
6.2.2 Travel patterns of pilgrims ..........................276
6.3 Patterns of vehicular movement .............................281
6.3.1 Traffic flow .......................................281
6.3.2 Vehicle classification counts ........................290
6.4 Movement of pilgrims in the Hajj region .....................294
6.4.1 Movement patterns of pilgrims ......................294
6.4.2 Modes of pilgrim travel .............................300
6.5 Duration of pilgrim sojourn ................................303
6.5.1 Duration of stay in Saudi Arabia .....................303
6.5.2 Arrival and departure patterns ......................306
6.5.3 Duration of stay in Makkah .........................310
Summary........................................................313
References......................................................317
Chapter Seven Hajj Movement in Makkah .................... 318
7.1 Introduction ..............................................319
7.2 Patterns of pilgrim movement between the Holy Places ........321
7.3 Traffic management during the Hajj .........................328
7.4 Vehicular movement between the Holy Places ................331
7.5 Pedestrian movement .....................................337
7.5.1 Pedestrian movement within the Holy Places ..........340
7.5.2 Pedestrian movement between the Holy Places ........342
Summary........................................................348
References......................................................351
Chapter Eight The Major Transport Problems of Hajj
Movement .....................................352
8.1 Introduction ..............................................353
8.2 Pilgrim Characteristics .....................................354
8.2.1 Nationality ........................................ 355
8.2.2 Sex Structure ......................................380
8.2.3 Age Structure ..................................... 365
8.2.4 Education Level ...................................370
8.2.5 Pilgrim Groups ....................................379
8.3 Transport problems of the Hajj movement ...................382
8.3.1 Traffic Situation ...................................387
8.3.2 Vehicle Condition .................................392
8.3.3 Transport Fare ....................................399
8.3.4 Road Services .....................................403
Summary........................................................405
References......................................................407
Chapter Nine The Possible Alternative Transport
System for the Hajj Movement:
Recommendations............................. 408
9.1 Introduction ..............................................409
9.2. Regional Movement .......................................411
9.2.1. Review of Some Previous Suggestions ................411
9.2.2. Alternative Pattern for the Regional Movement
oftheHajj........................................416
9.3. Local Movement ..........................................423
9.3.1. Some Previous Suggestions .........................423
9.3.2. Time-space Constraints and the Hajj Movement
Elements.........................................429
9.3.3. Alternative System of the Local Movement ...........432
References......................................................446
Conclusion......................................................448
Bibliography..................................................... 455
Appendices......................................................468
1.1 Significance of the Study
The pilgrimage to Makkah, in which over 2.2 million Muslims from different countries and places come to perform their Hajj duty, can be considered the most important geographical phenomenon in the Middle East. This remarkable phenomenon has several characteristics which need to be examined and analysed in order to understand the problems that may be facing the pilgrims and the authorities responsible for the movement of pilgrims during the Hajj period. This is necessary if we are to provide appropriate solutions and planning in the future.
This vast number of pilgrims move between cities and through urban areas in a limited region during a specific period of time. Almost a month before the beginning of the Hajj rites period, Jeddah airport and harbour start to receive the earlier pilgrims arriving by plane or ship. At the same time or slightly later, Madinah and Makkah normally entertain the pilgrims who come by car and some of them also arrive at Madinah airport by plane. On arrival at Jeddah, some of the pilgrims make a short visit to Madinah before going to Makkah. Others simply travel directly to Makkah and pay the visit later on. However, by the eighth day of Dhul-Hijja (the last month of the Islam lunar calendar) almost all pilgrims are in Makkah or its environs to perform the Hajj rites which take between four and five days. After that, the transport of pilgrims begins back to their homes. All pilgrims who have travelled by air or sea must return to Jeddah, but some of them must first travel to Madinah for further prayers. The movement and transport of pilgrims during the Hajj should be considered the most complex aspect of the pilgrimage due to the following considerations.
1. Transport of pilgrims takes place within a specific area, the Hajj region inter-city (Jeddah, Madinah, Makkah), and in particular at those sites which are the Holy Places in Makkah, to perform the Hajj rites.
2. There is a practical and limited period to carry out the Hajj duty which is four or five days. Thus all pilgrims must be in Makkah throughout this period.
3. The number of pilgrims generally is increasing yearly, for example, it had not exceeded 350,000 in 1960, while in 1979 it reached 2,080,000 (see chapter 5).
4. The available system, to transport the pilgrims from the airport or harbour to Makkah, is only by road, using public or private vehicles.
From this, it should be clear that the Hajj movement has characteristics that are reflected in its influence upon the transportation of pilgrims. In addition, the Hajj region has many factors, the study of which will help to identify the problems of Hajj transport and planning requirements. Therefore the success of the Hajj is associated with success in the transport arrangements of the pilgrims.
1.2 Setting of the Hajj region
The Hajj region, or as it is called locally, the 'Hijaz Region', lies on the west of Saudi Arabia and east of the Red Sea. Despite the Hajj movement which occurs between and within Jeddah, Madinah and Makkah, the Hajj region extends to include other cities, towns and villages which are affected by the seasonal activities of the Hajj (see Figure 3.5). The Hajj region incorporates Yanbu city which used to be the second harbour for pilgrims after Jeddah seaport. Yet most of the pilgrims who use sea transport for international travel arrive at Jeddah. It may also include Taif city, which is an essential entry to Makkah from eastern ports, and Allieth town which is considered as the southern entry to the Holy Makkah. Nevertheless, the study area will concentrate on Jeddah, Madinah and Makkah (which form a triangular shape (see Figure 1.1)) owing to the fact that regional movement in the Hajj occurs between these three cities. A brief geographical picture of each city follows.
1.2.1. Makkah
The Holy Mosque, which is considered the centre of Makkah city, lies on 21.25° north latitude and 39.500 east longitude. Geographically, Makkah is located at a point where an eastern extension of the Tihama coast meets with the granite hills of the Sarawat, at an elevation of 277 m above mean sea level. It is situated on rock hills called 'coastal elevations' lying between the coastal plain of the Red Sea to the west and the Sarawat mountains to the east. This is considered a central location in terms of settlement between the two directions. In the west, Jeddah lies on the Red Sea coast at a distance of 73 km from Makkah and in the east, Taif is situated at roughly the same distance. Both are cultural centres which were founded as a result of Makkah's influence.
Figure 1.1 The Hajj Region in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Makkah was built around the holiest shrine in the Muslim world (the Ka'ba). It is toward this house of God that hundreds of millions of Muslims turn every day in their prayers, and to this very ancient city that hundreds of thousands of them flock every year. In addition, it holds many places of religious and historical significance, such as the shrine of Ibrahaim (Abraham), the well of Zarnzam, and the mounts of As-Safu and Al-Marwah (As-Saba'ai, 1979).
Topographically, the city is closely confined by steep-sided barren hills which channel its development along a series of valleys (wadis) - e.g. the Ibrahim and Tundebaway valleys. This topographical situation has been one of the major factors influencing the urban pattern and expansion of Makkah (El-Hamdan, 1976:32).
The topographical situation, indeed, plays a role in determining the types of urban development in the city, in that most of the housing is located in the narrow flat areas of the wadis (valleys). The street pattern has also been influenced by topography. The network of main roads radiates from the city centre (the Holy Mosque) and follows the meanderings of the valley (see section 3.3.4).
The population has been estimated by the Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs (1987) at around 700,000 with a density of 131 people per hectare. This means that Makkah is the second largest city in the region, and the third largest in the country.
Climatic conditions in Makkah are characterised by long hot summers and short mild winters, with temperatures ranging between an average summer maximum of 400 C and an average winter minimum of 15° C. Rainfall ranges from 10 to 120 mm per year; and the greatest monthly total on record is 20 mm.
1.2.2 Madinah
The second holiest city in Islam after Makkah is Madinah, the city of the Prophet Mohammed, which has the prophet's mosque. It is visited by hundreds of thousands of Muslims each year. Although a visit to Madinah is not one of the requirements of the Hajj, most external pilgrims visit it once they have journeyed to Saudi Arabia. Madinah is situated about 400 km north of Makkah. It lies on 24.28° north latitude and on 39.30° east longitude, on a plateau immediately to the east of the Hejaz Mountains, about 150 km east of the Red Sea, and at the northern end of a huge basaltic flow. This plateau is surrounded by hills and lava flows (Harrah's)
Climatic conditions in Madinah are more continental than those of any other city in the region. Minimum temperatures reach a low average of 10° C in January while the maximum temperatures reach a high average of 42° C in July. Total annual rainfall reaches about 104 mm.
In 1987 the city covered an area of about 24,980 hectares. About 11 per cent of this area was used by public utilities, including the road network. The population was estimated at 500,000, with a population density of some 20 people per hectare (MoM & RA, 1987)
1.2.3 Jeddah
On the eastern shore of the Red Sea lies the Saudi Arabian port and city of Jeddah, the largest and most important port city in the country. It is considered as the main entry to Makkah for people who come by air or sea.
As a result of its favourable location the communication system that developed in Jeddah offers the highest accessibility possible, both to the other parts of Saudi Arabia and to the outside world. Both the airport and the harbour are of high international standards and are highly efficient in the handling of freight and passengers, especially pilgrims. In 1987 the population of Jeddah was about 1,312,000, i.e. the largest city in the region and the second largest in the countly.
Climatic conditions in Jeddah are influenced by its location on the Red Sea. This location, between the Mediterranean type of climate, and the monsoon type of climate, causes high humidity during the summer months. Temperatures are high almost all year round reaching a maximum monthly average of 39° C in July, and a minimum monthly average of 17° C in January. Relative humidity has an average monthly maximum of between 75 percent and 80 percent. Rainfall is unpredictable although the city is subject to winter rainfall which occurs between October and April.
The most important thing to mention here is King Abdul Asiz International Airport in Jeddah. It has been designed to cope with one of the world's busiest air transport routes, particularly during the pilgrimage season. The airport is built on an area of 105 sq km (65 sq miles). It is divided into three air terminals: the domestic terminal, the international terminal, used by 40 international airlines, and the pilgrims' terminal. "The latter was built from a high-resistant material to resemble an Arab tent, and has won an international award as an advanced engineering innovation." (MOl, 1988).
In fact this terminal, or as it is called 'Pilgrims' City' is a separate building inside the airport. It consists of shops, banks, restaurants, health services and so on. The court of the terminal can contain about 33 planes of different sizes at the same time. In 1986, 106 planes arrived at the terminal on one day (Almansory, 1987, 233).
Jeddah is also the largest port in the kingdom of Saudi Arabia for the transportation of passengers and goods. It is regarded as the port for Makkah, from which pilgrims arriving by sea head towards the Holy City. The port plays an essential role in handling millions of tons of materials and thousands of passengers. The port was redeveloped to include 40 quays which can handle all sorts of goods as well as pilgrims arriving by sea.
Conclusion
Through this research, it has become clear that the most important factors influencing the movement and transport of pilgrims are time-space constraints, the infrastructure of road networks, numbers of vehicles, the volume and characteristics of pilgrims and government policy towards the Hajj movement.
With regards to transport facifities on roads, the development of the road network in Saudi Arabia seems to be well underway. The basic structure of the Kingdom's road network is now generally complete. All the cities and many rural areas are connected by expressway or dual carriageway, providing good access for pilgrims to Makkah and Madinah in the Hajj region.
In Makkah, however, the move to build more roads may stimulate investment and property development which would lead to settlement, the expansion of Makkah and a consequent increase in its volume of vehicles and traffic movement. A corollary of this is that Makkah will find it increasingly difficult to function as a religious centre. It is important to recognise that a small city is better able to cope with an event like the Hajj than a large, sprawling city. Thus, when one considers that the historical and essential function of Makkah is spiritual, serving the religious seasons and the Hajj, then it would seem appropriate to restrict the growth of the city in general, and the number of vehicles in particular.
The essential factor which has overwhelmingly affected the transport of pilgrims in Makkah is the number and type of vehicles involved in the Hajj movement. The administrative region of Holy Makkah is ranked first in the Kingdom in terms of vehicle volume during the non-Hajj period. The number of vehicles in the Makkah and Madinah regions represents sixty per cent of all vehicles in the Kingdom. Fifty nine percent of vehicles in the Makkah region were private cars (Chapter 4). Buses and taxis comprised less than two per cent of the vehicle fleet, which means that vehicles of public road transport in the Hajj region form a very low proportion of the overall.
Although the volume of public transport modes (buses) increases during the Hajj activity, its percentage of this type of transportation did not exceed 21 per cent of the total vehicles used in the Hajj movement of 1989. Moreover, the statistics of GDT show that, between 1983 and 1988, the growth of private cars was forty per cent, while public road transport increased by only thirty per cent. It is important initially to consider the problem of increasing numbers of vehicles as a result of the increase in the number of residents. This might prompt the introduction of rules limiting the numbers of private cars in Makkah and the encouragement of public transport use during the Hajj period particularly amongst those who live around the Holy Places (see section 4.3.1.2).
Public transport services in the Hajj region are provided by a paratransit system or by SAPTCO. During the Hajj period, in addition to this, the GSC is responsible for transporting external pilgrims. Although SAIVFCO is the only public road transport company for the whole Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, it has faced a constant decline in passenger numbers since 1983, particularly on the non-Hajj services. This issue should be taken into consideration in the planning of the type of public transport systems which would be best suited to the Hajj.
A principal problem experienced by the GSC is that their buses remain essentially unutiised throughout the non-Hall period of the year, being brought into use only when the pilgrims start arriving in the Kingdom. In terms of the supply and demand of public transport modes, there is a massive disparity between the Hajj period and the non-Hajj period. This may emphasise the fact that the mode which can be suggested to serve pilgrims should be flexible and able to deal with these problems. The bus fleet could, for example, be hired in part from neighbouring countries during times of peak demand in Hall movement: at present, this is impossible with the train system.
In 1989, only sixty three per cent of all GSC's transport companies' buses were used to transport pilgrims between the Holy Places (Chapter 4), i.e. the demand upon the bus companies was less than the supply. Competition from private sector cars available in Makkah can be considered a main reason for the low demand for buses.
Apart from the vehicle numbers entering and leaving Makkah in 1989, those which remained in the city during the Hajj period totalled 40,143. The addition of these numbers to the number of existing vehicles owned in Makkah results in the total volume of about 147,458 vehicles, which leads to great complexities of traffic movement during the Hajj movement in Makkah.
The need to minimise the number of vehicles entering Makkah during the Hajj period is considered an urgent requirement in order to avoid the effect of regional movement upon local movement and consequently to reduce traffic congestion and pollution in Makkah. This might be developed by the following actions:
1) raising the minimum permitted passenger capacity from 9 to 12 seats. As with small cars, the entry of vehicles with a seating capacity of fewer than 12 could be forbidden;
2) The policy of granting permission for small cars to enter needs re-regulation by the responsible departments in order to reduce the issue of permits as much as possible;
3) Establishing procedures to guarantee the supply of food, goods and drinking water within Makkah before the Hajj period state (see Chapter 6).
However, the transport problems of the Hajj movement between the cities of the region were not as complex as those in the Holy Places in and around Makkah. The alternative pattern for the regional movement has been developed in order to reduce the pressure on Jeddah airport during the Hajj (Chapter 9).
As regards the patterns of movement of pilgrims between the Holy Places, the departure from Arafat (Nafrah) at sunset constitutes one of the largest movements of vehicles and people over a short time span. Although the average length of time spent travelling from Arafat to Mozdalifah during Nafrah was approximately half an hour, it took eleven per cent of the pilgrims more than two hours. The rise in vehicle numbers leading to overcrowding and congestion were the main factors causing this problem. An additional contributing factor here may be the unequal distribution of traffic on the nine roads linking the Holy Places (see Chapter 6).
Regarding pedestrian movement, research revealed that the travelling time of pedestrians between the Holy Places was sometimes shorter than for pilgrims who travelled by automobile. About twenty per cent of mobiised pilgrims arrived at Mozdalifah after midnight, whilst only 4.2 per cent of pedestrians did so.
In addition to the disadvantages resulting from the overuse of motor vehicles in the Hajj movement, the complexity of the pilgrim characteristics in terms of nationality, demography, education, language and group formation may create multiple and complicated problems for the system of movement and transport in the Hajj region. This should be borne in mind by anyone attempting to solve the Hajj movement problems and by anyone dealing with pilgrims. More precisely, the major problems which pilgrims face have been specified in section 8.3. The survey revealed that fifty four per cent of respondents considered the transport provision in Makkah to be good, and twenty seven per cent thought it was satisfactory. Although only ten per cent on average considered transport services on Hajj movement routes in general to be poor, the average of those who made critical comments about the shortcomings of transport provision was thirty four per cent. Pilgrim dissatisfaction expressed itself in complaints about traffic congestion, the condition of vehicles used to transport pilgrims, fares and roadside facilities.
Traffic, in particular, attracted the highest number of complaints: more than fifty per cent of the total comments concentrated on congestion and long traffic jams between the Holy Places. Such problems are long-standing and, from a pilgrim's point of view, represent the major difficulties of movement. In fact such problems cannot be solved exclusively by building more roads and providing more vehicles. It has been found that Hajj movement in Makkah is subject to a series of time-space constraints; time is too short and land is often not available. These limitations of time-space on an increasing number of pilgrims and vehicles involved in the Hajj were essential elements in the creation of traffic congestion.
Therefore any system or solution for transport problems of the Hajj movement particularly in Makkah should consider the time-space concept of the Hajj activity. All the elements involving the movement and transport of pilgrims can be changed except for time and space factors. With the exception of the latter, the other factors must be harmonised with the time-space capacity of the Hajj activity. (See figure 9.7). This can be achieved by strategic planning of the contraction of the volume of changeable elements of the Hajj movement. Their plan might be considered as an alternative system and it consists of few fundamental elements: (1) using high occupancy vehicles; (2) encouraging pilgrims to walk; (3) continuing to establish and implement a quota system; (4) a plan to preserve the balance of flow between and within the Holy Places and the prohibition of vehicles entering overcrowded places such as Al-jamarat and the sacrifice areas, should be implemented (see Chapter 9).
Finally, the movement and transport of pilgrims can involve vast areas of possible research for geographers and non-geographers alike. It is not possible given the time and resource limitations of this study to cover all disciplines pertaining to the Hajj movement. There are many aspects related to the movement of pilgrims which need to be examined and analysed by researchers: the movement and transport of internal pilgrims within the Hajj Region, particularly in Makkah, and the geographical distribution of their origin; the relationship between external and internal pilgrims in terms of a time-space model of the Hajj; the impact of using roadsides of the Holy Places for accommodation purposes on the Hajj and external movement in particular. All of these need extensive investigation and examination in order to attain a comprehensive understanding of the Hajj movement.
In addition, the data about Hajj movement which is provided by the Central Department of Statistics (CDS) may need to be improved to give a more finely segregated classification of pilgrims, and of their vehicles in particular. For example, to enable researchers to gain a more accurate and detailed picture of the Hajj movement, such information as geographical distribution, the demographic and social characteristics of pilgrims, the classification of vehicles entering Makkah and the volume of vehicle flow in the main areas of the Hajj region, are all needed. Consequently, more finely segregated data would assist planners and social scientists in finding the most convenient and accessible solutions for problems that arise during the Hajj, and in the development of the transport systems for pilgrims.
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