Study of Black Sand Particles from Sand Dunes in Badr, Saudi Arabia Using Electron Microscopy
Haider Abbas Khwaja 1,2,*, Omar Siraj Aburizaiza 3,*, Daniel L. Hershey 4, Azhar Siddique 3,5, David A. Guerrieri P. E. 4, Jahan Zeb 3, Mohammad Abbass 6, Donald R. Blake 7, Mirza Mozammel Hussain 1,2, Abdullah Jameel Aburiziza 8 , Malissa A. Kramer 4 and Isobel J. Simpson 7
1 Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, NY 12201, USA; E-Mail: mirza.hussain@health.ny.gov
2 Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University at Albany, Albany, New York, NY 12201, USA
3 Unit for AinZubaida and Groundwater Research, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589,Saudi Arabia; E-Mails: azhars@uok.edu.pk (A.S.); qurashisown@yahoo.com (J.Z.)
4 New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, 625 Broadway, Albany, New York, NY 12233, USA; E-Mails: danielnys@earthlink.net (D.L.H.); dave.guerrieri@dec.ny.gov (D.A.G.P.E.); malissa.kramer@dec.ny.gov (M.A.K.)
5 Chemistry Department, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
6 Civil Engineering Department, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; E-Mail: orzizah@kau.edu.sa
7 Department of Chemistry, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA; E-Mails: drblake@uci.edu (D.R.B.); isimpson@uci.edu (I.J.S.)
8 School of Medicine, Umm Ul Qura University, Mecca 21955, Saudi Arabia;
= E-Mail: aburiziza@gmail.com
* Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: haider.khwaja@health.ny.gov (H.A.K.); aburizaiza@hotmail.com (O.S.A.);
Tel.: +1-518-474-0516 (H.A.K.); +966-12-695-2821 (O.S.A.); Fax: +1-518-473-2895 (H.A.K.);
+966-12-695-2499 (O.S.A.).
Academic Editor: Armin Sorooshian
Atmosphere 2015, 6, 1175-1194; doi:10.3390/atmos6081175
Abstract:
Particulate air pollution is a health concern. This study determines the microscopic make-up of different varieties of sand particles collected at a sand dune site in Badr, Saudi Arabia in 2012. Three categories of sand were studied: black sand, white sand, and volcanic sand. The study used multiple high resolution electron microscopies to study the morphologies, emission source types, size, and elemental composition of the particles, and to evaluate the presence of surface “coatings or contaminants” deposited or transported by the black sand particles. White sand was comprised of natural coarse particles linked to wind-blown releases from crustal surfaces, weathering of igneous/metamorphic rock sources, and volcanic activities. Black sand particles exhibited different morphologies and microstructures (surface roughness) compared with the white sand and volcanic sand. Morphological Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Laser Scanning Microscopy (LSM) analyses revealed that the black sand contained fine and ultrafine particles (50 to 500 nm ranges) and was strongly magnetic, indicating the mineral magnetite or elemental iron. Aqueous extracts of black sands were acidic (pH = 5.0). Fe, C, O, Ti, Si, V, and S dominated the composition of black sand. Results suggest that carbon and other contaminant fine particles were produced by fossil-fuel combustion and industrial emissions in heavily industrialized areas of Haifa and Yanbu, and transported as cloud condensation nuclei to Douf Mountain. The suite of techniques used in this study has yielded an in-depth characterization of sand particles. Such information will be needed in future environmental, toxicological, epidemiological, and source apportionment studies.
Keywords: particulate; urban aerosols; Saudi Arabia; sand; scanning electron microscopy
1. Introduction
Particulate air pollution significantly impacts public health in both developed and developing countries. Major sources of particulate matter (PM) include large industries, such as power plants, petrochemical plants, cement plants, vehicular traffic, windblown dust, crustal erosion, volcanic eruptions, wildfires, sea spray, and combustion processes [1]. Amongst all of these, combustion is the main source for pollutant emissions. PM varies in composition, origin, and size, ranging from submicron (sub-μm), 1–30 μm, and up to 50 μm or more. Large particles (>10 μm) have a relatively low residence time in the air and tend to settle quickly through gravitational subsidence. Fine particles with aerodynamic diameters less than 2.5 μm (PM2.5) and “coarse” particles with aerodynamic diameters less than 10 μm (PM10) remain airborne for a longer period of time. Ultrafine particles are particulate matter of nanoscale size (less than 100 nm in diameter). Fine particles in the 0.05–2 μm range can travel distances up to approximately 1000 km [2].
Exposure to PM has been associated with numerous effects on human health, including increased morbidity and mortality, respiratory problems, cardiovascular diseases, lung cancer, renal and brain damage, and human metal poisonings [3–6]. Both fine and coarse particles are readily inhaled into the human respiratory tract. It is suggested that fine particles are more strongly implicated in cardiovascular effects than coarse particles, while both impact respiratory end points [7]. In epidemiological studies, positive correlations have been established between elevated levels of inhaled airborne PM, especially PM2.5, and acute adverse health effects [8–10]. Aside from the amount of PM inhaled, particle-related parameters, such as size, composition, and solubility have also been linked to health effects in toxicology studies. Size affects the site deposition in the human respiratory tract and the consequent degree of toxicity that may result. Therefore, ultrafine particles are more toxic than coarse particles and are linked to pulmonary diseases in human and animals [11–14]. Particle sizes also reveal the origin and the formation of airborne particles: larger sized particles are of crustal origin whereas fine particles originate from combustion processes or gas-to-particle conversion in the atmosphere [15].
Particulate air pollution is a health concern among the residents of Badr, Saudi Arabia. Deposition of black sand particles has recently become common on Douf Mountain (Figure 1), located to the west of Badr. The soil surrounding Medina consists mostly of basalt, while the hills to the southeast and northeast are volcanic sand that dates to the Paleozoic era. The geology of Badr is represented by granophyre and alkali-feldspar granite. Dominant lithologies are andesitic and dacitic to rhyolitic tuffs, lavas, and volcanic rocks [16]. The town of Badr, in Medina province (23°47′N 38°47′E; 123 m altitude), is located about 150 km southwest of the holy city of Medina, towards the western outlet of Wadi-e-Safra (Figure 2a). The total area of Badr is 8226 km2 with a population of 61,600. Average annual rainfall is 80 mm. June, July, August, and September are the hottest months in Badr with an average temperature of 40 °C, while the coldest are January and February at 14 °C. Historically, Badr was a market, situated on the road which connects Sham (Syria, Lebanon and Palestine now) with Mecca (Figure 2b).
Figure 1. (a) Photograph of black sand on Douf Mountain, Badr, Saudi Arabia; (b) Photograph of black sand collected from Douf Mountain on February 2012.
Figure 2. (a) Map of Saudi Arabia; (b) Map of western Saudi Arabia showing location of sampling site, Badr.
Despite concerns about the health and environmental significance of the black sand particles, not much is known about the size, morphology, and specific chemical constituents of these sand particles. It is generally known that certain chemical forms are more toxic than others: in general, soluble forms are potentially more toxic than those tied up as insoluble oxides or forming glassy structures [17]. Knowledge of the morphology and chemical characterization of sand particles can aid in control strategies and help to interpret and predict chemical interactions in the atmosphere, downwind fallout rates, potential damage to vegetation, deterioration of materials and structures, and, in particular, impact on human health. Among microanalytical techniques for characterizing black sand particles, Scanning Electron Microscopy with an attached Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometer (SEM/EDS) is the most versatile technique, capable of simultaneously obtaining information on particle size, morphology, elemental composition, and microstructure [18,19]. Here the microscopic make-up of different varieties of sand particles collected from a dune near Badr is presented.
4. Conclusions
High resolution electron microscopy, viz. optical stereo microscope (OSM), scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM/EDS), and laser scanning microscopy (LSM), was a powerful tool for in-depth analysis and identification of particles by revealing details of the microstructure, morphology, emission source types, size, and elemental composition of each type of sand particles. The physical and chemical characterization of sand samples from Badr, Saudi Arabia by different complimentary techniques has contributed to our knowledge and understanding of the sand particles. These particles could have long-term health consequences to the residents of Badr, but a dedicated health analysis would be needed to investigate this possibility.
White sand contained silicates (alumino-silicates), quartz (SiO2, clean crystalline structure, milky, rose), calcite, olivine, feldspar, and magnetite. Compared to white sand and volcanic sand, the black sand particles exhibited very different morphologies and microstructures (surface roughness). Morphological SEM and LSM analyses showed that the black sand contained fine and ultrafine particles (50 to 500 nm ranges) and there was a thin surface layer (1 μm) embedding a large number of particles from the atmospheric deposition. Ion chromatography analyses confirmed the presence of the following water-soluble anions and cations in variable concentrations in magnetic black sand: SO4 2− , NO3 − , Cl− , Na+ , K+ , Mg2+, Ca2+.
X-ray energy dispersive microanalyses of sand samples revealed varying weight concentrations of C, O, Na, Mg, Al, Si, S, Ca, Ti, V, and Fe, ranging from 0.1% to 55% in all four samples. The predominant elements in black sand were Fe, C, O, Ti, Si, Al, V, and S. Enrichment factor (EF) analysis results demonstrated that Na, Mg, Al, Si, K, and Ca in black sand originated from natural sources, while Fe, C, Ti, V, and S were linked to anthropogenic sources. Fossil-fuel combustion and industrial emissions in Haifa and Yanbu can be significant sources of carbon and other contaminant particles, which can be easily adhered to soil particles during long-range transport.
This study presents the first in-depth characterization of black sand particles from sand dunes of Saudi Arabia. Reliable baseline data on particulate air pollution are needed for setting standards and objectives of air pollution controls, and to investigate the role of local and long-range transported anthropogenic emissions. Examining the types, dimensions, and the amount of carbon and other contaminant particles deposited in the coming years will indicate effectiveness of the pollution control devices which have been installed on industries producing energy from fossil-fuels. A comprehensive study should be considered to cover the whole area, trace wind pathways from source regions, and outreach to local people to locate other areas where black sand has been deposited. Future research into the issues such as the real size of the ultrafine particles, mechanisms of long-range transport in the region and mechanisms of adhesion of the ultrafine particles to the larger sand grains would help explain these issues more fully. Further research into health outcomes (respiratory diseases, cardiovascular) in the general population and susceptible groups in Badr and other major cities of Saudi Arabia should also be performed.
Acknowledgments
The authors express their appreciation to Abdul Rahman Al Youbi, Vice President for Academic Affairs, King Abdulaziz University and Abdullah Ahmad A. Ghamdi, Dean Research and Consulting Institute, King Abdulaziz University for their support. We gratefully acknowledge the support by the Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health. We also thank Curtis Boynton, a summer intern with the NYS DEC, for his help. The authors wish to thank to Tara Nylese of EDAX Inc. for providing the results for confirmation purposes. The authors also wish to thank Brian Frank, Katherine Alben, Simeen Tabatabai, and Jessica Stark for valuable comments and editing the manuscript.
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