The Labour Force in Libya':
Problems and Prospects
by
Abdussalam 0. Ibrahim
B.Sc University of Libya
Diploma in Development Planning, Kuwait
MPA University of Hartford, USA
Graduate Society
Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Social
Sciences in candidacy for the degree of Doctor
of Philosophy
University of Durham
England
August 1987
ABSTRACT
The population of Libya has experienced a fast growth during the last three decades or so, and has actually more than trebled. However, it is still small in relation to the considerable resources and the vast territory of the country. The broadly based population pyramid, the unbalanced population and labour force distribution, the still ineffective educational and training system, the rapid pace of development, the under-employment of Libyans, the lack of dedication, workaholic attitudes and sense of responsibility among many Libyans and the prevailing cultural pattern of female exclusion from working careers, have together resulted in a wide gap between the supply and the demand for labour. To close such a wide gap, an importation of hundreds of thousands of non-nationals was necessary. For many reasons the number of the latter grew and grew to the degree that they started to constitute about one fifth of the total population and almost half of the total employment, and the dependence on them was too heavy to the extent that locals became parasitic.
Although the nationalization of the labour force started more than ten years ago, it has achieved little. The growth of the national economy, the broad cradle-to-grave social security, the abundant wealth, the immature foreign importation and the lack of good management of the local labour force were factors behind the failure of the Libyanization process and the continuous need for foreign brains and brawn in key sectors for a long time to come.
In a country like Libya, with an insufficient mix of skills and marginal and uncertain oil revenues, the key to her development is the investment in her people through better education, more equitable income and infrastructure distribution, more efficient medical services, hygienic nutrition, decent housing, better use of people and more efforts in the improvement of female status. The recent sharp decline in oil prices is a hidden blessing to Libyans as it is expected to compel them to take a U-turn in their aspirations and expectations and look more seriously to the problems of the labour force.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • , • • . • • • , • • • • , 1
Acknowledgement.... •..... . . •....... . •....... . . ......... ....... 111
Table of Contents. . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... . .............. . . . iv
Listof Tables....... . . .. .... . .. . . .. .... ..... .............. ix
List of Figures.... ............... ........... xiii
List of Plates................... ............ .......... xv
CHAPTERONE : INTRODUCTION........... ..................... 1
1.1 The Nature of the Problem....... ........... 1
1.2 TheSignificanceoftheStudy............ ........ 8
1.3 TheOrganizationoftheStudy.................... 9
1.4 LimitationoftheStudy......... ................. 11
References ........ •,...... . . . . •.......... . . ........ . . . 12
CHAPTER TWO DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LIBYAN
WORKFORCE ............. ........ ......... 14
2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... ............. . 14
2.2 PopulationSizeandGrowth..... .......... ..... 14
2.3 Urbanization and Population Concentration........ 24
2.4 TheDominanceoflwoCities...................... 29
2.5 Fertility and Mortality...... . . ..... 33
2.6 SexandAgeDistribution....... ......... 40
2.7 Labour Participation..... .............. . . ........ 47
2.8 Future Population Trends.......... . . . . . . 54
References............ .......... ................. ........ 71
CHAPTER THREE : PROBLEMS OF LITERACY, EDUCATION AND
TRAINING .......................... .......... 77
3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . ........ .......... . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.2 Education, the Historical Perspective............ 77
V
3.3 Organization of the Existing Education
System........................................... 87
3.3.1 Compulsory, primary and preparatory....... ....... 88
3.3.2 Secondary education........ . . .. ........ .......... 88
3.3.3 Teacher training.... ................. ............ 89
3.3.4 Institutes of Technical Education.............. 89
3.3.5 Health education.. ....................... ........ 89
3.3.6 Social work education...... ............ ......... 89
3.3.7 Islamic education......... ........ ............... 90
3.3.8 Higher technical education............. .......... 90
3.3.9 University education............ . . . .............. 90
3.4 Development in Formal Education Enrolment. ....... 90
3.5 Female Education........... ........ .............. 99
3.6 Problems of Education. ............ ............... 104
3.6.1 Problem of quality...... . . . . . . . . ......... ........ 1 04
3.6.2 Problemofschoolbuildings...... ................ 108
3.6.3 Problemoftechnicaleducation............ ....... 112
3.6.4 Lack of vocational guidance and counselling...... 114
3.6.5 Adult and continuing education. .................. 114
3.7 TheNewEducationalStructure........ ....... 115
3.8 Final Remarks. . ......... . . . . ..................... 119
References. . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . . . ............. . ..... 126
CHAPTER FOUR NATIONALS IN THE LABOUR FORCE : DEVELOPMENT
STRUCTURES AND PROBLEMS..... ............... 132
Introduction....... . . . . . . . . . . . ................... 132
Nationals in the Labour Force Before Oil
Exploration:ABriefReview.....................
Nationals in the Labour Force in 1964
and1973... ........ ........... ...........
The National Labour Force 1975-85................
Major Issues Related to the Under-Utilization
ofLocalsintheLabourForce. ...........
Military Service ......... .......
Wages and Salaries.................. ..........
vi
4.5.3 Administrative Organization.......... ............
4.5.4 Female Labour........ ...........
4.5.5 Unemployment and Underemployment.... .......
4.5.6 Labour Intensive Techniques......................
4.5.7 Training abroad ......... ...... . . ..........
4.5.8 Longevity................. . . ......... . . . . . . . .
4.5.9 Unequal development ......... .............
4.5.10 Students and disabled ...... . . . . . . ...........
4.6 Future Trends of National Employment.............
References...... . . . ................ . .....................
CHAPTER FIVE : NON-NATIONALS EN THE LABOUR FORCE... ........
5.1 Introduction. .............. .......... . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Employment of Non-Nationals 1954-73..............
5.3 The Growth and Decline in the Number of
Non-Nationals....... . . . .......... . ...............
5.4 Migrant Workers by Place of Origin.............
5.5 Regional Distribution of Foreign Employment......
5.6 Skill Composition of Expatriate Labour Force.....
5.7 The Employment of Non-Nationals by Economic
Sectors ............... . .. . .. ............ . .. . ...
5.8 The Occupational Distribution of Foreign
Employment. ................ . . . . ..................
5.9 Employment of Non-Nationals : Benefits and costs.
5.9.1 Benefits...... . . . •....... . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . .
5.9.2 Costs....... . . . .......... . . . . . . . . . . ...... . .....
5.10 Libyanization : Rhetoric and Reality...........
5.11 Conclusion.... ...... . . ........................
References...... . . . . . . . . ............. . . . . ................
CHAPTER SIX : DEVELOPMENT PLANNING IN LIBYA : THE NEED TO
RETHINK. . . . . . . . . . . . ........... ...... . . . . . .
6.1 Introduction ............... ........ . ...........
6.2 An Historical Background........ . ................
6.3 Development Planning in the Deficit Years
1951 -62 ........ • • . . • . . • . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... 233
6.4 Development Planning in the Period 1963-72....... 239
6.5 Development Planning Since 1973 : Unlimited
ResourcesandOverAmbitions...... ............ 243
6.6 Agriculture. ....... ....... . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
6.7 Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................... 254
6.8 Public Health.......•...... ........ ..... 258
6.9 Housing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . ..... 262
6.10 Electricity and Utilities..... .......... ....... 264
6.11 TransportationandOtherSectors... ........... 265
6.12 Spatial Approach in Development Planning......... 266
6.13 The Demand and Supply of the Labour Force........ 273
6.14 SummaryandFinalRemarks........................ 275
References. . . . . . . . ............. . . . . .......... . ........... 286
CHAPTER SEVEN : WOMANPOWER : A POTENTIAL LABOUR FORCE
RESOURCE..................................... 292
7. 1 Introduction ........................... ......... 292
7.2 An Historical Background.. ........ . ............. 293
7.3 Female Employment...... . . . . 295
7.4 Traditional Constraints.. ........................ 306
7.4.1 High i 1 1 i teracy. . . .......................... . . 306
7.4.2 Theextremelyhighfertility. .................... 307
7.4.3 Some other traditional constraints........ ...... 308
7.5 Religious Justification...... . . . . . . . . . ........... 311
7.6 Legal Justification .............. ....... 319
7.7 Changing Roles. ............... ....... ........... 321
7.7.1 From 1952 up to the end of 1969.................. 331
7.7.2 The period 1969-80... .....•..... ................. 332
7.7.3 Theperiodofthel98O'sonward.................. 338
7.8 Concluding Remarks......... ........ ............. 341
References.................................. 351
viii
Page
CHAPTEREIGHT : CONCLUSION............................358
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 367
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