URBAN SOCIAL GEOGRAPHY
An Introduction
Paul Knox
University Distinguished Professor,
College of Architecture and Urban Studies,
Virginia Tech
and
Steven Pinch
Professor of Geography,
University of Southampton
6th Edition
2010
Contents
A guide to using this book
Acknowledgements
1 Social geography and the sociospatial
dialectic 1
Key questions addressed in this chapter 1
1.1 Different approaches within human geography 1
The quantitative approach 1
The behavioural approach 2
The structuralist approach 2
Poststructuralist approaches 3
The study of urban social geography 3
1.2 The sociospatial dialectic 5
1.3 The macro-geographical context 5
A changing context for urban social geography 6
Economic change and urban restructuring 6
The imprint of demographic change 9
The city and cultural change 13
Political change and the sociospatial dialectic 13
Chapter summary 14
Key concepts and terms 14
Suggested reading 14
International journals 15
2 The changing economic context of
city life 17
Key questions addressed in this chapter 17
2.1 The precapitalist, preindustrial city 17
2.2 The growth of the industrial city 20
Early models of the spatial structure of industrial cities 21
Marx and the industrial city 22
Fordism and the industrial city 23
Keynesianism and the ‘long boom’ of Fordism 24
2.3 The contemporary city 27
Neo-Fordism 27
Urban change under neo-Fordism 29
Postindustrial society under neo-Fordism 30
Globalization 33
Knowledge economies and the informational city 34
2.4 Conclusions 37
Chapter summary 37
Key concepts and terms 38
Suggested reading 38
3 The cultures of cities 40
Key questions addressed in this chapter 40
3.1 What is culture? 40
The materiality of cultures 41
Shared meanings 41
Diversity and difference 41
Identities 43
3.2 Post colonial theory and the city 43
Hybridity 45
The social construction of culture 46
3.3 Space, power and culture 47
Foucault and the carceral city 47
The social construction of space 48
Space and identity 49
3.4 Postmodernism 51
Postmodernism in the city 51
Romantic capitalism: the aestheticization of consumption 54
3.5 Conclusions 55
Chapter summary 57
Key concepts and terms 57
Suggested reading 58
4 Patterns of sociospatial differentiation 59
Key questions addressed in this chapter 59
4.1 Urban morphology and the physical structure of cities 59
House types, building lots and street layouts 60
Morphogenesis 60
Environmental quality 65
4.2 Difference and inequality: socio-economic and
sociocultural patterns 67
Studies of factorial ecology 70
Patterns of social well-being 73
Intra-urban variations in the quality of urban life 75
The geography of deprivation and disadvantage 75
Chapter summary 82
Key concepts and terms 83
Suggested reading 83
5 Spatial and institutional frameworks:
citizens, the state and civil society 84
Key questions addressed in this chapter 84
5.1 The interdependence of public institutions and private life 84
Citizenship, patriarchy and racism 86
The law and civil society 86
The changing nature of urban governance 88
Spaces of neoliberalization 89
Green politics 92
5.2 De jure urban apaces 92
Metropolitan fragmentation and its spatial consequences 92
Fiscal imbalance and sociospatial inequality 93
Fiscal mercantilism 94
5.3 The democratic base and its spatial framework 96
The spatial organization of elections 97
Malapportionment and gerrymandering 97
The spatiality of key actors in urban governance: elected officials and
city bureaucrats 97
Bureaucracy and sociospatial (re)production 98
The parapolitical structure 98
Business 99
Labour 99
Citizen organizations and special interest groups 99
Homeowners’ associations: private governments 101
Urban social movements 103
5.4 Community power structures and the role of the local state 104
Regime theory 104
Structuralist interpretations of the political economy of
contemporary cities 105
The local state and the sociospatial dialectic 106
Regulation theory and urban governance 107
Redefining citizenship 110
5.5 The question of social justice in the city 111
Chapter summary 112
Key concepts and terms 113
Suggested reading 113
6 Structures of building provision and
the social production of the urban
environment 115
Key questions addressed in this chapter 115
6.1 Housing submarkets 116
The growth of home ownership 116
The decline of private renting 123
The effects of rent controls 123
The spatial effects of disinvestment 123
The development of public housing 124
Public housing in the United Kingdom 124
Sociospatial differentiation within the public sector 125
The voluntary sector: the ‘third arm’ of housing provision 129
6.2 Key actors in the social production of the built environment 130
Landowners and morphogenesis 131
Builders, developers and the search for profit 131
Discrimination by design: architects and planners 134
Women’s spaces 134
Women’s places 135
Mortgage financiers: social and spatial bias as good business practice 136
Bias against people 137
Bias against property 137
Real estate agents: manipulating and reinforcing neighbourhood
patterns 139
Manipulating social geographies; blockbusting and gentrification 139
Public housing managers: sorting and grading 143
Problem families and dump estates 143
Chapter summary 145
Key concepts and terms 145
Suggested reading 145
7 The social dimensions of modern
urbanism 147
Key questions addressed in this chapter 147
7.1 Urban life in Western culture 147
7.2 Urbanism and social theory 148
The Chicago School 149
Urbanism as a way of life 149
The public and private worlds of city life 152
The self: identity and experience in private and public worlds 152
7.3 Social interaction and social networks in urban settings 154
Social network analysis 154
Urban ecology as shaper and outcome of social interaction 156
The spatial model 157
Criticisms of the ecological approach 158
Social interaction in urban environments 160
Social distance and physical distance 160
Chapter summary 163
Key concepts and terms 163
Suggested reading 164
8 Segregation and congregation 165
Key questions addressed in this chapter 165
8.1 Social closure, racism and discrimination 165
8.2 The spatial segregation of minority groups 166
Issues of definition and measurement 167
External factors: discrimination and structural effects 169
Congregation: internal group cohesiveness 171
Clustering together for defence 172
Clustering for mutual support 172
Clustering for cultural preservation 173
Spaces of resistance: clustering to facilitate ‘attacks’ 173
Colonies, enclaves and ghettos 174
Illustrative example 1: structural constraints and cultural preservation
in the United Kingdom 176
Illustrative example 2: migrant workers in continental European cities 181
Chapter summary 185
Key concepts and terms 185
Suggested reading 185
9 Neighbourhood, community and the
social construction of place 187
Key questions addressed in this chapter 187
9.1 Neighbourhood and community 188
Urban villages: community saved? 188
The fragility of communality 188
Suburban neighbourhoods: community transformed? 190
Splintering urbanism and the diversity of suburbia 191
Status panic and crisis communality 191
Communities and neighbourhoods: definitions and classifications 193
9.2 The social construction of urban places 193
Urban lifeworlds, time–space routinization and intersubjectivity 196
Structuration and the ‘becoming’ of place 198
Constructing place through spatial practices 199
Place, consumption and cultural politics 200
Habitus 202
9.3 The social meanings of the built environment 202
The appropriation of space and place: symbolism and
coded meanings 203
Architecture, aesthetics and the sociospatial dialectic 204
Commodification 205
Architecture and the circulation of capital 205
Chapter summary 208
Key concepts and terms 208
Suggested reading 208
10 Environment and behaviour in
urban settings 210
Key questions addressed in this chapter 210
10.1 Theories about deviant behaviour 211
Determinist theory 212
Crowding theory 213
Design determinism 215
Alienation 215
Compositional theory 216
Subcultural theory 216
Structuralist theory 218
Multi-factor explanations: the example of crime and delinquency 219
Data problems 219
The geography of urban crime 221
10.2 Cognition and perception 225
Designative aspects of urban imagery 226
Cognitive distance 229
Appraisive aspects of urban imagery 229
The cognitive dimensions of the urban environment 230
Images of the home area 230
Chapter summary 232
Key concepts and terms 232
Suggested reading 232
11 Bodies, sexuality and the city 234
Key questions addressed in this chapter 234
11.1 Gender, heteropatriarchy and the city 235
Gender roles in the sociospatial dialectic 236
11.2 Sexuality and the city 238
Prostitution and the city 238
Urbanization and prostitution 239
Sex workers in contemporary cities 239
Homosexuality and the city 240
The social construction of sexuality 240
Homosexual urban ecology 240
Gay spaces 243
Lesbian spaces 243
Queer politics: lipstick lesbians and gay skinheads 244
11.3 Disability and the city 246
The social construction of disability 247
Disability in urban settings 248
Chapter summary 250
Key concepts and terms 251
Suggested reading 251
12 Residential mobility and neighbourhood
change 252
Key questions addressed in this chapter 252
12.1 Patterns of household mobility 254
Movers and stayers 254
Patterns of in-migration 254
Intra-urban moves 256
Distance and direction 256
Household movement and urban ecology 256
The determinants of residential mobility 257
Reasons for moving 257
Space needs and life-course changes 258
The decision to move 260
The search for a new residence 263
Specifying the desiderata of a new home 263
Searching for vacancies 264
Time constraints 266
Choosing a new home 266
12.2 Residential mobility and neighbourhood change 267
High-status movement, filtering and vacancy chains 267
Obstacles to filtering 269
Vacancy chains 270
Chapter summary 270
Key concepts and terms 270
Suggested reading 271
13 Urban change and conflict 272
Key questions addressed in this chapter 272
13.1 Externality effects 272
The costs of proximity and the price of accessibility 273
Competition and conflict over externalities 273
13.2 Accessibility to services and amenities 275
The aggregate effects of aggregate patterns 276
Amenities, disamenities, and social reproduction 277
13.3 Urban restructuring: inequality and conflict 278
Decentralization and accessibility to services and amenities 278
Accessibility and social inequality 279
Redevelopment and renewal 280
Planning problems: the British experience 280
Service sector restructuring 282
Deinstitutionalization and residualization 282
Privatization 284
Workfare 285
Social polarization 285
The informal urban economy 288
Urban social sustainability 292
Chapter summary 296
Key concepts and terms 296
Suggested reading 297
14 Whither urban social geography?
Recent developments 298
Key questions addressed in this chapter 298
14.1 Los Angeles and the ‘California School’ 299
Critique of the LA School 301
Los Angels: a paradigmatic city? 302
14.2 Cinema and the city 304
Films as texts 304
The influence of the city on film 305
The influence of film on the city 305
Film as business 308
‘Curtisland’ 308
City branding 309
14.3 Conclusion: whither urban social geography? 310
Chapter summary 312
Key concepts and terms 313
Suggested reading 313
Glossary 314
References 345
Index 363
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