ENCYCLOPEDIA of WORLD
CLIMATOLOGY
edited by
JOHN E. OLIVER
Indiana State University
Springe
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES
Contents
List of Contributors
Introduction
Acid Rain
Melissa L. Kemling
Adiabatic Phenomena
Rhodes W. Fairbridge
Aerosols
Robert A. Duce
Africa: Climate of
John F. Griffiths
Agroclimatology
Claudia Wagner-Riddle
Airmass Climatology
Mark D. Schwartz and William T. Corcoran
Air Pollution Climatology
Peyman Zawar-Reza and Rachel Spronken-Smith
Albedo and Reflectivity
Samuel N. Goward
Aleutian Low
Robert M. Hordon and Mark Binkley
Angular Momentum, Angular Velocity
Rhodes W. Fairbridge
Antarctic Climates
Andrew M. Carleton
Applied Climatology
Stanley A. Changnon
Archeoclimatology
Reid Bryson
Architecture and Climate
Vivian Lofiness
Arctic Climates
Mark C. Serreze
77
Arid Climates 85
Danny M. Vaughn
Aridity Indexes 89
Stephen J. Stadler
Art and Climate 94
Hans Neuberger and John E. Thornes
Asia, Climates of Siberia, Central and East Asia 102
William A. Dando
Asia, Climate of South 115
Y. Xue and M. Yanai
Asia, Climate of Southwest 120
Heidi M. Cullen
Atmosphere 125
Howard A. Bridgman
Atmospheric Circulation, Global 126
John G. Lockwood
Atmospheric Nomenclature 134
Randall S. Cerveny
Atmospheric Nuclei and Dust 135
Robert W. Fenn
Australia and New Zealand, Climate of 137
Howard A. Bridgman
Azores (Bermuda) High 154
Robert M. Hordon and Mark Binkley
Beaufort Wind Scale 156
John R. Mather
Bioclimatology 158
A.R. Maarouf and R.E. Munn
Blizzard Climatology 165
Robert M. Schwartz
Blocking 167
John E. Oliver
vi CONTENTS
Boundary Layer Climatology 168
D.S. Munro
Bowen Ratio 178
John E. Oliver
Budyko, Mikhail Ivanovich 179
William A. Dando
Carbon-14 Dating 181
Claudio Vita-Finzi
Centers of Action 182
Robert M. Hordon
Central America and the Caribbean, Climate of 183
Michael A. Taylor and Eric J. Alfaro
Climate Affairs 189
Michael H. Glantz
Climatic Change and Ancient Civilizations 192
Masatoshi Yoshino
Climate Change and Global Warming 199
Michael C. MacCracken
Climate Change and Human Health 209
Anthony J. McMichael and Rosalie E. Woodruff
Climate Change Impacts: Potential
Environmental and Societal Consequences 213
Michael C. MacCracken
Climate Classification 218
John E. Oliver
Climate Comfort Indices 227
Yuk Yee Yan
Climate Data Centers 231
Robert Mark Simpson
Climate Hazards 233
Jack Hobbs
Climate Modeling and Research Centers 243
Robert Mark Simpson
Climate Variation: Historical 247
Rhodes W Fairbridge
Climate Variation: Instrumental Data 263
Enric Aguilar, Robert G. Quayle and
J. Murray Mitchell Junior
Climate Vulnerability 266
Paul Kay
Climate Zones 270
John E. Oliver
Climatology 272
H E. Lanasberg/J.E. Oliver
Climatology, History of 283
David H. Miller
Cloud Climatology
Joel Norris
Coastal Climate
R.A. Muller, H.J. Walker, and S.A. Hsu
Commerce and Climate
David Changnon
Condensation
John E. Oliver
Continental Climate and Continentality
Richard Snow
Coral Reefs and Climate
J. Kleypas
Coriolis Effect
Yuk Yee Yan
Crime and Climate
James Lebeau
Cultural Climatology
John Thornes
Cycles and Periodicities
W.J. Burroughs
Degree Days
Danny M. Vaughn
Desertification
Michael H. Glantz
Deserts
Sharon E. Nicholson
Determinism, Climatic
Akhtar H. Siddiqi and John E. Oliver
Dew/Dewpoint
John E. Oliver
Doldrums
Joseph Gentilli
Drought
Donald A. Wilhite
Dynamic Climatology
Glen A. Marotz
Easterly Waves
John E. Oliver
Ekman (Spiral) Layer
Rhodes W. Fairbridge
Electromagnetic Radiation
Rhodes W. Fairbridge
El Nino
Michael H. Glantz
349
CONTENTS vii
Energy Budget Climatology
David Greenland
Europe, Climate of
Keith Robert Boucher
Evaporation
W.C. Swinbank
Evapotranspiration
John E. Oliver
Extratropical Cyclones
Greg Bierly
Ferrel Cell
Rhodes W. Fairbridge
Flohn, Hermann
Cameron Douglas Craig
Fog and Mist
John A. Day
Folklore, Myths and Climate
RandallS. Cerveny
Frost
Benjamin Moulton and John E. Oliver
Gentilli, Joseph
John Dodson
Geomorphology and Climate
Susan Berta
Global Environmental Change: Impacts
R.E. Munn and A.R. Maarouf
Greenhouse Effect and Greenhouse Gases
A.J. Pitman
Hadley Cell
John E. Oliver
Hadley, George
Lisa M. Butler Harrington
Hail
Lewis G. Wixon
Hare, F. Kenneth
John Hay
Heat Index
Thomas W. Schlatter
Heat Low
L.M. Trapasso
Holocene Epoch
Neil Roberts
Horse Latitudes
Rhodes W. Fairbridge
351 Howard, Luke
Cameron Douglas Craig
355 Human Health and Climate Laurence S. Kalkstein
367 von Humboldt (Baron), Friedrich Heinrich Alexander
Lisa M. Butler Harrington
370 Humid Climates
James A. Henry
373 Humidity
John E. Oliver and Rhodes W. Fairbridge
378 Hydroclimatology
Wayne M. Wendland
379 Hurricanes - Data and Data Sources
John E. Oliver
379 Ice Ages
Rhodes W. Fairbridge
380 Icebergs and Heinrich Events
Rhodes W. Fairbridge
381 Icelandic Low
Robert M. Hordon
384 Indian Summer
John E. Oliver
385 Intergovernmental Panel in Climate Change (IPCC)
John E. Oliver
388 Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
Yuk Yee Yan
391 Inversion
John E. Oliver
398 "ISO" Terms
John E. Oliver and Rhodes W. Fairbridge
399 Jet Streams
Elmar Reiter and Greg Bierly
399 Katabatic (Gravity) Winds
D.S. Munro
402 Kepler's Laws
Rhodes W. Fairbridge
403 Koppen, Wladimir Peter
William A. Dando
405 Krakatoa Winds
Rhodes W. Fairbridge
405 Kyoto Protocol
John E. Oliver
406 Lakes, Effects on Climate
Thomas W. Schmidlin
444
viii
Lamb, Hubert H.
Mick Kelly
Land and Sea Breezes
Yuk Yee Yan
Landsberg, Helmut E. 447
Ferdinand Baer
Lapse Rate 448
Rhodes W. Fairbridge and John E. Oliver
Latent Heat 450
David R. Legates
Lightning 451
S. Ladochy
Literature and Climate 453
Christina Dando
Little Ice Age 457
Rhodes W. Fairbridge
Local Climatology 460
Masatoshi Yoshino
Local Winds 467
John E. Oliver
The Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) 476
John E. Oliver
Maritime Climate 477
John E. Oliver
Mather, John R. 479
Sandra F. Pritchard Mather
Maunder, Edward Walter and Maunder Minimum 480
Patrick Moore and John E. Oliver
Maury, Matthew Fontaine 481
Lisa M. Butler Harrington
Medieval Warm Period or "Little Climatic Optimum" 482
Rhodes W. Fairbridge
Mediterranean Climates 485
G. Jay Lennartson
Microclimatology 486
W.G. Bailey
Middle Latitude Climates 500
Allen Perry
Milankovitch, Milutin 502
George Kukla and Rhodes W. Fairbridge
Military Affairs and Climate 503
Richard W. Dixon
Models, Climatic 505
Brian Hanson and Cort J. Willmott
509
Mountain and Valley Winds 516
John E. Oliver and Rhodes W. Fairbridge
Mountain Climates 517
David Greenland
National Center for Atmospheric Research 524
Anon
National Climate Data Center/Data Sources 524
John E. Oliver
North America, Climate of 525
William T. Corcoran and Elias Johnson
North American (Canadian) High 535
Robert M. Hordon
North Atlantic Oscillation 536
James W. Hurrell
Ocean-Atmosphere Interaction 540
G.R. Bigg
Ocean Circulation 547
J.G. Harvey and J. E. Oliver
Orographic Precipitation 552
Donna Tucker
Oscillations 555
John E. Oliver
Ozone 556
J. Ben Liley
Pacific (Hawaiian) High 562
Robert M. Hordon
Pacific North American Oscillation (PNA) 563
John E. Oliver
Paleoclimatology 564
A.S. Goudie
Palmer Index/Palmer Drought Severity Index 571
James E. Newman and John E. Oliver
Phase Changes 573
John E. Oliver
Precipitation 574
Donna F. Tucker
Precipitation Distribution 576
Orman E. Granger
Pressure, Surface 533
Brian D. Giles
CONTENTS
445 Monsoons and Monsoon Climate
S.K. Dash
446 Montreal Protocol
John E. Oliver
CONTENTS ix
Pressure, Upper Air
Brian D. Giles
Quasi-Biennial Oscillation
Rhodes W. Fairbridge
Radar, Climatic Applications
David L. Arnold
Radiation Climatology
Gerald Mills
Radiation Laws
A. John Arnfield
Rainforest Climates
John J. Hidore
Rainshadow
L.M. Trapasso
Reanalysis Projects
Brian D. Giles
Relative Humidity
John E. Oliver
Religion and Climate
William A. Dando
Rossby Wave/Rossby Number
Jay R. Harman and John E. Oliver
Satellite Observations of the Earth's Climate System
Graeme L. Stephens
Savanna Climate
John J. Hidore
Scales of Climate
A.A.L.N. Sarma
Sea Ice and Climate
John E. Walsh
Sea Level Rise
Vivien Görnitz
Seasonal Affective Disorder
Michael D. Morgan
Seasonal Climate Prediction
Peitao Peng
Seasonality: Astronomic Forcing
Rhodes W. Fairbridge
Seasons
Ted Alsop
Sensible Heat
David R. Legates
Siberian (Asiatic) High
Robert M. Hordon
588 Singularities
John E. Oliver
597 Snow and Snow Cover
Ross D. Brown and David A. Robinson
600 Solar Activity
James H. Shirley
603 Solar Constant
James H. Shirley
611 Solar Flare
James H. Shirley
612 Solar Radiation
L.J. Bruce McArthur
615 Solar Wind
John E. Oliver
615 South America, Climate of
Norys Jiminez and John E. Oliver
617 Southern Oscillation
Rhodes W. Fairbridge
618 Sports, Recreation and Climate
Steve Stadler
625 Spring Green Wave
Mark D. Schwartz
629 Standard Atmosphere
John E. Oliver
635 Statistical Climatology
Scott M. Robeson
637 Sunspots
Rhodes W. Fairbridge
639 Synoptic Climatology
Roger G. Barry
641 Taiga Climate
Mary Snow
644 Teleconnections
Adam Burnett
646 Temperature Distribution
L.M. Trapasso
648 Terrestrial Radiation
A. John Arnfield
651 Thornthwaite, Charles W.
John R. Mather
655 Thunder
Richard K. Cook
656 Thunderstorms
Rodger A. Brown
719
viii CONTENTS
Tornadoes
Edward Aguado and James E. Burt
Tourism and Climate
Allen Perry
Trade Winds and the Trade Wind Inversion
T.W. Giambelluca
Tree-Ring Analysis
Harold C. Fritts and James H. Speer
Tropical and Equatorial Climates
James Henry
Tropical Cyclones
Jay Hobgood
Troposphere
K. Dewey
Tundra Climate
Mary Snow
Turbulence and Diffusion
Hans A. Panofsky
Ultraviolet Radiation
A. John Arnfield
Units and Conversions
John E. Oliver
Urban Climatology
Anthony J. Brazel and Dale Quatrocchi
766
Vegetation and Climate
John R. Mather and Michael J. Brewer
Volcanic Eruptions and their Impact on the
Earth's Climate
S.L. de Silva
Vorticity
Greg Bierly
Walker Circulation
John E. Oliver
Water Budget Analysis
Robert A. Müller and John M. Grymes III
Weather
John E. Oliver
Wind Chill
Thomas W. Schlatter
Wind Power Climatology
Steve Stadler and Tim Hughes
Winds and Wind Systems
Robert C. Balling Jr. and Randall S. Cerveny
Zonal Index
John E. Oliver
Index of Authors Cited
Subject Index
843
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