ADVANCED
REMOTE
SENSING
REMOTE
SENSING
Terrestrial Information Extraction and Applications
Edited by
SHUNLIN LIANG
XIAOWEN LI
JINDI WANG
AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON
NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
Advanced Remote Sensing: Terrestrial Information Extraction and Applications
Advanced Remote Sensing is an application-based reference that provides a single source of mathematical concepts necessary for remote sensing data gathering and assimilation. It presents state-of-the-art techniques for estimating land surface variables from a variety of data types, including optical sensors such as RADAR and LIDAR. Scientists in a number of different fields including geography, geology, atmospheric science, environmental science, planetary science and ecology will have access to critically-important data extraction techniques and their virtually unlimited applications. While rigorous enough for the most experienced of scientists, the techniques are well designed and integrated, making the book's content intuitive, clearly presented, and practical in its implementation.
Key Features
Comprehensive overview of various practical methods and algorithms
Detailed description of the principles and procedures of the state-of-the-art algorithms
Real-world case studies open several chapters
More than 500 full-color figures and tables
Edited by top remote sensing experts with contributions from authors across the geosciences.
CONTENTS
1. A Systematic View of Remote
Sensing 1
1.1. Introduction 2
1.2. Platform and Sensor System 2
1.3. Data Transmission and Ground
Receiving System 11
1.4. Data Processing System 14
1.5. Mapping Category Variables 18
1.6. Estimating Quantitative Variables 22
1.7. Production, Archiving, and
Distribution of High-level Products 27
1.8. Product Validation 28
1.9. Remote Sensing Applications 28
1.10. Concluding Remarks 30
References 30
2. Geometric Processing and Positioning
Techniques 33
2.1. Overview 34
2.2. Geometric Calibration of Satellite
Remote-Sensing Imagery 36
2.3. Geometric Rectification of a Single
Remote-Sensing Image 43
2.4. Geometric Registration of Satellite
Remote-Sensing Imagery 53
2.5. Construction of a Digital
Terrain Model 60
2.6. Orthoimage Production 64
2.7. Summary 72
References 73
3. Compositing, Smoothing,
and Gap-Filling Techniques 75
3.1. Multitemporal Compositing Techniques 76
3.2. Time-series Data Smoothing and
Gap-filling 81
3.3. Summary 88
References 89
4. Data Fusion 91
4.1. An Overview of Remote-Sensing
Data Fusion 92
4.2. Methods for Pixel-level Remote-Sensing
Data Fusion 94
4.3. Generalized Model for Pixel-level
Remote-Sensing Data Fusion 101
4.4. Heterogeneous Data Source Fusion
Technique 103
4.5. Summary 104
References 107
5. Atmospheric Correction of Optical
Imagery 111
5.1. Atmospheric Effects 112
5.2. Correcting the Aerosol Impact 114
5.3. Correcting the Impact of Water Vapor 121
5.4. Correcting the Impacts of Other
Constituents 122
5.5. Commonly Used Models and Software 122
5.6. Conclusions 124
References 125
6. Solar Radiation 127
6.1. Basic Concepts 128
6.2. Observation Network of Land-Surface
Radiation
6.3. Surface Radiation Estimation Based
on Satellite Remote Sensing and Global
Circulation Model GCM 136
6.4. Summary and Discussions 163
Nomenclature 169
References 170
7. Broadband Albedo 175
7.1. Land-Surface Bi-Directional Reflectance
Modeling 177
7.2. The Albedo Estimation Method Based on
Bi-directional Reflectance Model
Inversion 194
7.3. The Direct Estimation of Surface
Albedo 197
7.4. Joint Optimization of Surface-Atmospheric
Parameters 207
7.5. Global Land-Surface Albedo Products 213
7.6. Temporal and Spatial Analysis of
the Global Land-Surface Albedo 217
7.7. Problems and Prospects 227
References 228
8. Land-Surface Temperature
and Thermal Infrared Emissivity 235
8.1. The Definitions of LST and LSE 236
8.2. The Estimation of Average LST 239
8.3. LSE Estimation Methods 248
8.4. LSE and LST Products 265
8.5. Summary 267
Acronyms 268
References 268
9. Surface Longwave Radiation Budget 273
9.1. Surface Downward Longwave Radiation 274
9.2. Surface Upwelling Longwave Radiation 287
9.3. Surface Net Longwave Radiation 292
9.4. Ground Validation Networks and Existing
Satellite-Derived Surface Longwave
Radiation Budget Products 293
9.5. Summary 296
References 296
10. Canopy Biochemical Characteristics 301
10.1. Overview of Principles and Methods 302
10.2. Empirical and Semi-empirical
Methods 313
10.3. Extraction Using Physical Models 328
10.4. Conclusions and Discussions 343
References 344
11. Leaf Area Index 347
11.1. Definitions 348
11.2. Statistical Methods 351
11.3. Canopy Model Inversion Methods 353
11.4. Data Assimilation Methods 370
11.5. Global and Regional LAI Products 375
11.6. LAI Climatology 377
11.7. Summary 378
References 380
12. Fraction of Absorbed Photosynthetically Active
Radiation by Green Vegetation 383
12.1. Definitions 384
12.2. FAPAR Field Measurements 385
12.3. Monte Carlo (MC) simulation 386
12.4. Empirical Retrieval Methods 393
12.5. Popular Remote-Sensing FAPAR
Products 395
12.6. FAPAR Retrieval Method Based on
the Hybrid Vegetation Spectral Model 400
12.7. Case Study 406
12.8. Summary 411
References 412
13. Fractional Vegetation Cover 415
13.1. Introduction 416
13.2. Field Measurements of FVC 416
13.3. The Remote-Sensing Retrieval 422
13.4. Current Remote-Sensing Products 433
13.5. Challenges and Prospects for FVC
Estimation 435
References 436
14. Vegetation Height and Vertical Structure 439
14.1. Field Measurement of Vegetation Height
and Vertical Structure 440
14.2. Small-Footprint Lidar Data 443
14.3. Large-Footprint Lidar Data 449
14.4. Vegetation Canopy Height and Vertical
Structure from SAR Data 452
14.5. Future Perspectives 464
References 464
15. Above-ground Biomass 467
15.1. Introduction 467
15.2. Allocation Methods 468
15.3. Optical Remote-sensing Methods 471
15.4. Active Remote Sensing Methods 480
15.5. Methods for Biomass Estimation from
Multisource Data 488
15.6. Future Perspective 492
References 493
16. Vegetation Production in Terrestrial
Ecosystems 501
16.1. Concept of Vegetation Production 502
16.2. Ground Observation of Vegetation
Production 503
16.3. Statistical Models Based on the Vegetation
Index 506
16.4. Light-Use Efficiency Model Based on
Remote-Sensing data 508
16.5. Dynamic Global Vegetation Models
(DGVMs) 521
16.6. Temporal and Spatial Distribution Pattern
of Global Vegetation Productivity 526
16.7. Summary 528
References 528
17. Precipitation 533
17.1. Surface Measurement Techniques 534
17.2. Estimation from Satellite Data 536
17.3. Global and Regional Datasets 541
17.4. Global Precipitation Climatology 549
17.5. Future Perspectives 552
References 554
18. Terrestrial Evapotranspiration 557
18.1. Introduction 557
18.2. Basic Theories of lE 562
18.3. Satellite lE Algorithms 565
18.4. Observations for Algorithm Calibration
and Validation 576
18.5. Conclusions and Discussion 579
Acknowledgements 581
References 581
19. Soil Moisture Content 589
19.1. Introduction 589
19.2. Conventional SMC Measurement
Techniques 590
19.3. Microwave Remote-Sensing Methods 593
19.4. Optical and Thermal-IR Remote-Sensing
Methods 602
19.5. Estimation of Soil Moisture Profile 608
19.6. Comparison of Different Remote-Sensing
Techniques 609
19.7. Available Datasets and Spatial and Temporal
Variations 609
19.8. Conclusions 612
References 612
20. Snow Water Equivalence 615
20.1. Passive Microwave Remote-Sensing
Techniques 616
20.2. Active Microwave Remote-Sensing
Techniques 639
20.3. Visible Band Remote-Sensing
Techniques 649
20.4. Summary 651
References 653
21. Water Storage 655
21.1. Water-Balance-Based Estimation 656
21.2. Surface-Parameter-based Estimation 656
21.3. GRACE-based Estimation 660
21.4. Discussion and Future Prospects 663
References 664
22. High-level Land Product Integration 667
22.1. Introduction 668
22.2. Geostatistical Methods 672
22.3. Multiresolution Tree 672
22.4. Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF)-based
Methods 680
22.5. Summary 686
References 687
23. Production and Data Management
Systems 691
23.1. Overview of the Production and Database
Management 691
23.2. System Hardware 692
23.3. Production System 692
23.4. Data Management System 699
23.5. Summary 701
References 701
24. Land-cover and Land-use Changes 703
24.1. Introduction 704
24.2. Urbanization 705
24.3. Intensive Agriculture 719
24.4. Forest Cover Changes 738
24.5. Conclusions 763
References 764
Index 773
CONTENTS
1. A Systematic View of Remote
Sensing 1
1.1. Introduction 2
1.2. Platform and Sensor System 2
1.3. Data Transmission and Ground
Receiving System 11
1.4. Data Processing System 14
1.5. Mapping Category Variables 18
1.6. Estimating Quantitative Variables 22
1.7. Production, Archiving, and
Distribution of High-level Products 27
1.8. Product Validation 28
1.9. Remote Sensing Applications 28
1.10. Concluding Remarks 30
References 30
2. Geometric Processing and Positioning
Techniques 33
2.1. Overview 34
2.2. Geometric Calibration of Satellite
Remote-Sensing Imagery 36
2.3. Geometric Rectification of a Single
Remote-Sensing Image 43
2.4. Geometric Registration of Satellite
Remote-Sensing Imagery 53
2.5. Construction of a Digital
Terrain Model 60
2.6. Orthoimage Production 64
2.7. Summary 72
References 73
3. Compositing, Smoothing,
and Gap-Filling Techniques 75
3.1. Multitemporal Compositing Techniques 76
3.2. Time-series Data Smoothing and
Gap-filling 81
3.3. Summary 88
References 89
4. Data Fusion 91
4.1. An Overview of Remote-Sensing
Data Fusion 92
4.2. Methods for Pixel-level Remote-Sensing
Data Fusion 94
4.3. Generalized Model for Pixel-level
Remote-Sensing Data Fusion 101
4.4. Heterogeneous Data Source Fusion
Technique 103
4.5. Summary 104
References 107
5. Atmospheric Correction of Optical
Imagery 111
5.1. Atmospheric Effects 112
5.2. Correcting the Aerosol Impact 114
5.3. Correcting the Impact of Water Vapor 121
5.4. Correcting the Impacts of Other
Constituents 122
5.5. Commonly Used Models and Software 122
5.6. Conclusions 124
References 125
6. Solar Radiation 127
6.1. Basic Concepts 128
6.2. Observation Network of Land-Surface
Radiation
6.3. Surface Radiation Estimation Based
on Satellite Remote Sensing and Global
Circulation Model GCM 136
6.4. Summary and Discussions 163
Nomenclature 169
References 170
7. Broadband Albedo 175
7.1. Land-Surface Bi-Directional Reflectance
Modeling 177
7.2. The Albedo Estimation Method Based on
Bi-directional Reflectance Model
Inversion 194
7.3. The Direct Estimation of Surface
Albedo 197
7.4. Joint Optimization of Surface-Atmospheric
Parameters 207
7.5. Global Land-Surface Albedo Products 213
7.6. Temporal and Spatial Analysis of
the Global Land-Surface Albedo 217
7.7. Problems and Prospects 227
References 228
8. Land-Surface Temperature
and Thermal Infrared Emissivity 235
8.1. The Definitions of LST and LSE 236
8.2. The Estimation of Average LST 239
8.3. LSE Estimation Methods 248
8.4. LSE and LST Products 265
8.5. Summary 267
Acronyms 268
References 268
9. Surface Longwave Radiation Budget 273
9.1. Surface Downward Longwave Radiation 274
9.2. Surface Upwelling Longwave Radiation 287
9.3. Surface Net Longwave Radiation 292
9.4. Ground Validation Networks and Existing
Satellite-Derived Surface Longwave
Radiation Budget Products 293
9.5. Summary 296
References 296
10. Canopy Biochemical Characteristics 301
10.1. Overview of Principles and Methods 302
10.2. Empirical and Semi-empirical
Methods 313
10.3. Extraction Using Physical Models 328
10.4. Conclusions and Discussions 343
References 344
11. Leaf Area Index 347
11.1. Definitions 348
11.2. Statistical Methods 351
11.3. Canopy Model Inversion Methods 353
11.4. Data Assimilation Methods 370
11.5. Global and Regional LAI Products 375
11.6. LAI Climatology 377
11.7. Summary 378
References 380
12. Fraction of Absorbed Photosynthetically Active
Radiation by Green Vegetation 383
12.1. Definitions 384
12.2. FAPAR Field Measurements 385
12.3. Monte Carlo (MC) simulation 386
12.4. Empirical Retrieval Methods 393
12.5. Popular Remote-Sensing FAPAR
Products 395
12.6. FAPAR Retrieval Method Based on
the Hybrid Vegetation Spectral Model 400
12.7. Case Study 406
12.8. Summary 411
References 412
13. Fractional Vegetation Cover 415
13.1. Introduction 416
13.2. Field Measurements of FVC 416
13.3. The Remote-Sensing Retrieval 422
13.4. Current Remote-Sensing Products 433
13.5. Challenges and Prospects for FVC
Estimation 435
References 436
14. Vegetation Height and Vertical Structure 439
14.1. Field Measurement of Vegetation Height
and Vertical Structure 440
14.2. Small-Footprint Lidar Data 443
14.3. Large-Footprint Lidar Data 449
14.4. Vegetation Canopy Height and Vertical
Structure from SAR Data 452
14.5. Future Perspectives 464
References 464
15. Above-ground Biomass 467
15.1. Introduction 467
15.2. Allocation Methods 468
15.3. Optical Remote-sensing Methods 471
15.4. Active Remote Sensing Methods 480
15.5. Methods for Biomass Estimation from
Multisource Data 488
15.6. Future Perspective 492
References 493
16. Vegetation Production in Terrestrial
Ecosystems 501
16.1. Concept of Vegetation Production 502
16.2. Ground Observation of Vegetation
Production 503
16.3. Statistical Models Based on the Vegetation
Index 506
16.4. Light-Use Efficiency Model Based on
Remote-Sensing data 508
16.5. Dynamic Global Vegetation Models
(DGVMs) 521
16.6. Temporal and Spatial Distribution Pattern
of Global Vegetation Productivity 526
16.7. Summary 528
References 528
17. Precipitation 533
17.1. Surface Measurement Techniques 534
17.2. Estimation from Satellite Data 536
17.3. Global and Regional Datasets 541
17.4. Global Precipitation Climatology 549
17.5. Future Perspectives 552
References 554
18. Terrestrial Evapotranspiration 557
18.1. Introduction 557
18.2. Basic Theories of lE 562
18.3. Satellite lE Algorithms 565
18.4. Observations for Algorithm Calibration
and Validation 576
18.5. Conclusions and Discussion 579
Acknowledgements 581
References 581
19. Soil Moisture Content 589
19.1. Introduction 589
19.2. Conventional SMC Measurement
Techniques 590
19.3. Microwave Remote-Sensing Methods 593
19.4. Optical and Thermal-IR Remote-Sensing
Methods 602
19.5. Estimation of Soil Moisture Profile 608
19.6. Comparison of Different Remote-Sensing
Techniques 609
19.7. Available Datasets and Spatial and Temporal
Variations 609
19.8. Conclusions 612
References 612
20. Snow Water Equivalence 615
20.1. Passive Microwave Remote-Sensing
Techniques 616
20.2. Active Microwave Remote-Sensing
Techniques 639
20.3. Visible Band Remote-Sensing
Techniques 649
20.4. Summary 651
References 653
21. Water Storage 655
21.1. Water-Balance-Based Estimation 656
21.2. Surface-Parameter-based Estimation 656
21.3. GRACE-based Estimation 660
21.4. Discussion and Future Prospects 663
References 664
22. High-level Land Product Integration 667
22.1. Introduction 668
22.2. Geostatistical Methods 672
22.3. Multiresolution Tree 672
22.4. Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF)-based
Methods 680
22.5. Summary 686
References 687
23. Production and Data Management
Systems 691
23.1. Overview of the Production and Database
Management 691
23.2. System Hardware 692
23.3. Production System 692
23.4. Data Management System 699
23.5. Summary 701
References 701
24. Land-cover and Land-use Changes 703
24.1. Introduction 704
24.2. Urbanization 705
24.3. Intensive Agriculture 719
24.4. Forest Cover Changes 738
24.5. Conclusions 763
References 764
Index 773
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