Remote Sensing Applications
with
Metrological Satellites
with
Metrological Satellites
by
W. Paul Menzel
NOAA Satellite and Information Service
University of Wisconsin
Madison, WI
February 2006
© 2006 W. Paul Menzel
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 - EVOLUTION OF SATELLITE METEOROLOGY
1.1 Before Satellites 7
1.2 Evolution of the Polar Orbiting Satellites 7
1.3 The Geostationary Program 13
1.4 Data Processing Capability 15
1.5 Impact of Sat ellit e Dat a on NWP 16
1.6 Summary 17
CHAPTER 2 - NATURE OF RADIATION
2.1 Remot e Sensing of Radiat ion 24
2.2 Basic Unit s 24
2.3 Definitions of Radiation 25
2.4 Historical Development of Planck's Radiation Law 27
2.5 Relat ed Derivat ions 28
2.5.1 Wien’s Displacement Law 29
2.5.2 Rayleigh-Jeans Radiat ion Law 30
2.5.3 Wien’s Radiat ion Law 30
2.5.4 Stefan-Boltzmann Law 31
2.5.5 Bright ness Temperat ure 32
CHAPTER 3 - ABSORPTION, EMISSION, REFLECTION, AND SCATTERING
3.1 Absorption and Emission 38
3.2 Conservat ion of Energy 38
3.3 Planetary Albedo 39
3.4 Selective Absorption and Emission 39
3.5 Absorpt ion (Emission) Line Format ion 41
3.6 Vibrational and Rotational Spectra 42
3.7 Summary of Interactions between Radiation and Matter 44
3.8 Beer's Law and Schwarzchild's Equation 45
3.9 Atmospheric Scattering 47
3.10 The Solar Spect rum 48
3.11 Composition of the Earth's Atmosphere 49
3.12 Atmospheric Absorption and Emission of Solar Radiation 49
3.13 Atmospheric Absorption and Emission of Thermal Radiation 50
3.14 Atmospheric Absorption Bands in the IR Spectrum 51
3.15 Atmospheric Absorption Bands in the Microwave Spectrum 52
3.16 Remot e Sensing Regions 52
CHAPTER 4 - THE RADIATION BUDGET
4.1 The Mean Global Energy Balance 63
4.2 The First Satellite Experiment to Measure Net Radiation 63
4.3 The Radiat ion Budget 65
4.4 Distribution of Solar Energy Intercepted by the Earth 66
4.5 Solar Heat ing Rat es 66
4.6 Infrared Cooling Rat es 67
4.7 Radiative Equilibrium in a Gray Atmosphere 68
CHAPTER 5 - THE RADIATIVE TRANSFER EQUATION (RTE)
5.1 Derivat ion of RTE 75
5.2 Temperat ure Profile Inversion 78
5.3 Transmit t ance Det erminat ions 80
5.4 Fredholm Form of RTE and Direct Linear Inversion 81
5.5 Linearization of the RTE 82
5.6 Statistical Solutions for the Inversion of the RTE 83
5.6.1 Statistical Least Squares Regression 83
5.6.2 Constrained Linear Inversion of RTE 84
5.6.3 St at ist ical Regularizat ion 85
5.6.4 Minimum Informat ion 86
5.6.5 Empirical Orthogonal Functions 87
5.7 Numerical Solutions for the Inversion of the RTE 92
5.7.1 Chahine Relaxation Method 92
5.7.2 Example Problem Using Relaxation Method 94
5.7.3 Smit h's It erat ion 95
5.7.4. Example Problem Using Smith's Iteration 96
5.7.5 Comparison of Chahine & Smith Iteration Solution 98
5.8 Direct Physical Solut ion 99
5.8.1 Solving Linear RTE Direct 99
5.8.2 Simultaneous Direct Physical Solution of the RTE 100
5.9 Water Vapor Profile Solutions 103
5.10 Microwave Form of RTE 105
CHAPTER 6 - DETECTING CLOUDS
6.1 RTE in Cloudy Conditions 111
6.2 Inferring Clear Sky Radiances in Cloudy Conditions 112
6.3 Finding Clouds 114
6.3.1 Threshold Test s for Finding Cloud 114
6.3.2 Spatial Uniformity Tests to Find Cloud 119
6.4 The Cloud Mask Algorithm 121
6.4.1 Thick High Clouds 121
6.4.2 Thin Clouds 122
6.4.3 Low Clouds 122
6.4.4 Thin High Clouds 123
6.4.5 Ancillary Data Requirements 123
6.4.6 Implementing the Cloud Mask Algorithms 124
6.4.7 Clear Sky Composit e Maps 124
6.5 Cloud Properties Derived in a MODIS Granule 125
6.5.1 Cloud Masking 125
6.5.2 Cloud Thermodynamic Phase 126
6.5.3 Cloud Top Pressure and Effective Cloud Amount 126
6.5.4 Cloud Optical and Microphysical Properties 127
6.5.5 Detection of Multi-layerd Clouds 128
6.5.6 Global Gridded Products 128
6.6 Ongoing Cloud Climatologies 129
6.5.1 ISSCP 129
6.5.2 CLAVR 130
6.5.3 CO2 Slicing 130
CHAPTER 7 - SURFACE TEMPERATURE
7.1 Sea Surface Temperat ure Det erminat ion 147
7.1.1 Slope Method 147
7.1.2 Three point Method 148
7.1.3 Least Squares Method 149
7.2. Water Vapor Correction for SST Determinations 149
7.3 Accounting for Surface Emissivity in Determination of SST 152
7.4 Surface Emissivit y 153
7.5 Estimating Fire Size and Temperature 154
CHAPTER 8 - TECHNIQUES FOR DETERMINING ATMOSPHERIC PARAMETERS
8.1 Tot al Wat er Vapor Est imat ion 163
8.1.1 Split Window Method 163
8.1.2 Split Window Variance Ratio 163
8.1.3 Perturbation of Split Window RTE 165
8.1.4 MW Split Window Estimation of Vapor & Liquid 165
8.2 Total Ozone Determination 166
8.2.1 Total Ozone from Numerical Iteration 166
8.2.2 Physical Retrieval of Total Ozone 168
8.2.3 HIRS Operational Retrieval of Total Ozone 169
8.3 Cloud Height and Effective Emissivity Determination 170
8.4 Geopotential Height Determination 173
8.5 Microwave Estimation of Tropical Cyclone Intensity 174
8.6 Satellite Measurement of Atmospheric Stability 176
CHAPTER 9 - TECHNIQUES FOR DETERMINING ATMOSPHERIC MOTIONS
9.1 Atmospheric Motion 183
9.2 Geostrophic Winds 183
9.3 Gradient Winds 184
9.4 Thermal Winds 184
9.5 Inferring Winds from Cloud Tracking 186
9.5.1 Current Operational Procedures 187
9.5.2 Current Operational Procedures 191
CHAPTER 10 - AN APPLICATION OF GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITE
SOUNDING DATA
10.1 Detection of Temporal and Spatial Gradients 198
10.2 VAS Detection of Rapid Atmospheric Destabilization 198
10.3 Operational GOES Sounding Applications 200
CHAPTER 11 - SATELLITE ORBITS
11.1 Orbit al Mechanics 211
11.2. The Geostationary Orbit 212
11.3 Orbit al Element s 213
11.4 Gravitational Attraction of Non-spherical Earth 214
11.5 Sunsynchronous Polar Orbit 214
CHAPTER 12 - RADIOMETER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
12.1 Components and Performance Characteristics 216
12.2 Spectral Separation 216
12.3 Design Considerat ions 216
12.3.1 Diffract ion 216
12.3.2 The Impulse Response Function 217
12.3.3 Det ect or Signal t o Noise 218
12.3.4 Infrared Calibrat ion 218
12.3.5 Bit Dept h 221
CHAPTER 13 - ESTABLISHING CLIMATE DATA RECORDS FROM MULTISPECTRAL MODIS MEASUREMENTS
13.1 The MODIS Spect ral Bands 226
13.2 Climat e Quest ions 226
13.3 MODIS Product Descript ions 229
13.4 MODIS and Climate Questions 236
CHAPTER 14 - THE NEXT GENERATION OF SATELLITE SYSTEMS
14.1 The Global Observing System 249
14.2 Remote Sensing Requirements in the next two decades 250
14.3 Current and Fut ure Polar Plat forms 251
14.4 Current and Future Geostationary Platforms 255
14.5 Thoughts on the Future Global Observing Satellite System 257
CHAPTER 15 – INVESTIGATING LAND, OCEAN, AND ATMOSPHERE WITH MULTISPECTRAL MEASUREMENTS
15.1 Introducing Hydra – a multispectral data analysis toolkit 260
15.2 St art ing Hydra 263
15.3 Exploring the MODIS spectral bands 267
15.4 Det ect ing Clouds 276
15.5 Mapping Vegetation 278
15.6 Invest igat ing a Volcanic Erupt ion 279
15.7 Invest igat ing Coast al Wat ers 280
APPENDIX A - EIGENVALUE PROBLEMS
A.1 Summary of Mat rices 282
A.2 Eigenvalue Problems 283
A.3 CO2 Vibrat ion Example 285
APPENDIX B - REFERENCES
APPENDIX B REFERENCES
The following references are some of the available articles that either summarize an important aspect of Satellite Meteorology or indicate a recent development. They are attached so that the interested reader can delve further.
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